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THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

Landscape  Architecture 

GIFT  OF 

Professor 
Harry  W.  Shepherd 


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COURSE  IN  AGRICULTURE 


I, 


PUBLISHED  FOR  THE 

FARMERS'    EDUCATIONAL    ASSOCIATION 

1892 


I. 

Soils  and  Farm  Crops. 

II. 
Farm  Animals  and  their  Products. 

III. 
Farm  Business. 


/ 


Soils  and  Crops 

of  the  Farm 


.  BY 

GEORGE    E.  '^MORROW,    M.    A. 

Professor  of  Agriculture  and  President  Board  of  Direction  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station,  Uiiiversity  of  Illinois, 

AND 

THOMAS    F.    HUNT,    B.    S. , 

Professor  of  Agriculture,  Ohio  State  University. 


CHICAGO 

HOWARD  &    WILSON   PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

1892 


Copyright  iSqi 

EV 

HOWARD  &  WILSON  PUBLISHING  CO. 
All  rights  reserved. 


AN  DSC 
CHITIEIC 


LANDSCAPE 
ARCHITECTURE 


(iv^ 


767 


PREFACE. 


THE  attempt  has  been  made  in  this  volume  to 
give  a  brief  statement  of  the  elementary 
principles  and  chief  facts  on  the  subjects  of  which 
it  treats.  Chapters  one  to  eight,  and  twenty, 
twenty-one  and  twenty-two  were  prepared  by  Mr. 
Morrow^ ;  the  others  by  Mr.  Hunt. 

The  authors  have  drawn  freely  from  many 
sources,  both  for  matter  and  illustrations,  and  can 
only  acknowledge  in  this  general  way  their  indebt- 
edness to  many  sources  of  information. 

In  the  preparation  of  th^  chapters  on  Soils, 
Warington's  "Chemistry  of  the  Farm"  was  found 
especially  helpful,  and  for  the  chapters  on  Cereals 
especial  indebtedness  is  acknowledged  to  the  ex- 
haustive monograph  on  cereals  by  Prof.  W.  H. 
Brewer,  in  the  Keports  of  the  Tenth  Census. 
Dr.  W.  C.  Stubbs  kindly  revised  manuscript  of 
chapter  on  Sugar  Plants  and  Prof.  S.  M.  Tracy 
that  on  Cotton. 
January,  1892. 


CONTENTS. 

Chapter  Page 

I.    Plant  Food  and  Gbowth 21 

II.     Soils — Classification,  Composition,  Ori- 
gin, Uses 30 

III.  Soils — Physical    Properties      ....  39 

IV.  Soils — Improvement  by  Manuring.       .     .  49 
V.     Soils— Improvement   by    Drainage    and 

Irrigation 60 

VI.    Tillage — Objects  and  Methods      ...       72 
VII.     Rotation  of  Crops — Reasons  for;  Illus- 
trative Examples 83 

VIII.    Farm    Crops —Classification,     Reasons 

FOR  Choice;  Improvement      ....      94 
IX.    Wheat — History,      Production,  ,  Uses, 

Structure,  Composition 102 

X.    Wheat — Relations    to  Climate,  Soils, 

Manures      .     * 112 

XI.     Wheat — Varieties,    Culture,   Harvest, 

Diseases 122 

XII.    Corn —History,   Uses,  Structure,  Com- 
position        135 

XIII.    Corn — Varieties,  Climate,   Soils,    Ma- 
nures        147 


CONTENTS. 
Chapter  Page 

XIV.    Corn — Culture  and  Harvesting    .     .     .    159 
XV.    Oats — History,    Uses,    Varieties,    Cul- 
ture     169 

XVI.     Barley  and  Rye l79 

XVII.    Grasses — History,     Production,    Uses, 

Culture,  Harvesting 190 

XVIII.     Grasses — Varieties        201 

>  XIX.     Clovers — History,  Uses,  Culture,  Vari- 
eties        215 

^    XX.     Silage     and      Forage      Crops. — Corn, 

Sorghum,  Millets,  Comfrey,  Douea    228 
XXI.    Potatoes — History,      Culture,      Vari- 
eties   236 

XXII.    Root  Crops — Mangels,  Beets,  Turnips  .    246 

XXIII.  Sugar     Plants — Cane,     Sorghum     and 

Beets 254 

XXIV.  Fibre    Crops — Cotton,     Flax,     Hemp, 

Jute,  Ramie  and  Sisal 268 

XXV.    Miscellaneous  Crops — Buckwheat,  To- 
bacco, Broom  Corn  and  Field  Peas    282 
XXVI.    Weeds — Injury,      Dissemination       and 

Eradication 293 


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THE  SOILS  AND  CEOPS  OF  THE  FAKM. 


CHAPTER  I. 

PLANT  FOOD  AND  GROWTH. 

Plants  live  and  grow.  Growth  comes  from  food. 
Plant  food  must  come  fi'om,  or  through,  the  soil  or 
air,  or  both.  Plants  cannot  move  about  to  seek  food. 
They  do  not  have  mouths  like  those  of  animals.  They 
cannot  take  in  solid  substances.  Their  food  must  be 
brought  into  contact  with  them  and  be  either  liquid 
or  gaseous  in  form. 

Finding  out  of  what  a  plant  is  composed  will 
help  to  an  understanding  of  how  and  from  whence  it 
gets  its  food. 

Water  is  found  in  any  living  plant  in  larger 
quantity  than  is  any  other  substance.  Generally 
there  is  a  greater  quantity  of  water  in  a  living  plant 
than  of  all  other  substances.  This  is  true  of  all  farm 
crops  while  they  are  growing.  Turnips  or  pump- 
kins have  more  than  nine- tenths  of  their  weight 
made  up  of  water.  There  is  less  solid  matter  in 
such  vegetables  than  in  milk.  The  percentage  of 
water  in  farm  crops  is  much  lessened  when  they  have 
been  harvested  and  are  ready  for  use,  but  there  is 
rarely  less  than  ten  per  cent  of  water  in  either  the 
grain,  stalk  or  leaf  of  farm  crops  when  called  thor- 
oughly dry.  To  drive  off  all  the  wat6r  from  a  plant 
it  must  be  exposed  to  a  high  temperature  for  many 
hours. 

21 


22  THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

Burning  a  plant  causes  it  to  divide  into  two 
classes  of  substances;  those  which  pass  into  the  air 
as  gas  or  vapor,  and  those  which  remain  as  ash.  The 
first  may  be  called  the  combustible;  the  second  the 
incombustible  or  mineral  part  of  the  plant. 

If  the  burning  has  been  thoroughly  done,  the  ash 
will  be  found  to  be  but  a  small  part  of  the  plant, 
either  in  bulk  or  weight;  generally  not  more  than  five 
per  cent,  or  one  part  in  twenty  of  the  total  dry  mat- 
ter. The  parts  of  the  plant  differ  much  in  the  per- 
centage of  ash  or  mineral  matter.  The  leaves  have 
most;  the  stems  next,  and  the  seeds  least. 

Plants  obtain  from  the  soil,  by  means  of  their 
roots,  all  the  mineral  or  ash  matter  found  in  them. 
The  soil  also  furnishes  most  of  the  water  they  con- 
tain. The  air  furnishes  to  plants  through  their  leaves 
nearly  all  the  matter,  except  water,  which  passes  off 
as  gas  when  the  plants  are  burned. 

The  soil  proper  gives  to  plants  but  a  small  part 
of  their  bulk  or  weight.  Several  wagon-loads  would 
be  required  to  remove  soil  equal  to  a  great  tree  in 
weight  or  bulk.  Had  the  matter  of  which  the  tree  is 
composed  been  mainly  taken  from  the  soil,  the  sur- 
face would  have  been  lowered  so  that  the  tree  would 
have  stood  in  a  hole.  Instead  of  this  the  surface  of 
the  soil  about  a  large  tree  is  often  above  the  general 
level.  If  thoroughly  burned  all  the  wood  in  the  tree 
would  leave  but  a  comparatively  small  quantity  of  ash. 

Chemical  KlemeiitN  in  Plantis. — The  chem- 
ical elements  usually  found  in  plants  are  thirteen 
in  number — three  gases  and  ten  solids.  Of  these, 
ten — three  gases  and  seven  solids — are  essential 
to  the  life  and  growth  of  plants.     The  other  three 


I 


PLANT  FOOD  AND  GROWTH.  23 

substances  are  not  believed  to  be  absolutely  es- 
sential, but  are  almost  always  found  in  plants  and 
probably  serve  important  purposes.  These  substances 
are: 

GASES. 

Oxygen.  Nitrogeo.  Hydrogen. 

SOLIDS. 

Carbon.  Magnesium. 

Sulphur.  Iron. 

Phosphorus.  

Potassium.  Sodium. 

Calcium  or  Lime.  Silicon. 
Chlorine. 
The  first  five  named  elements  compose  the  com- 
bustible parts  of  plants — that  is,  these  elements  pass 
off  into  the  air  as  gases  when  the  plant  is  burned. 
The  five  next  named  are  essential  ash  or  mineral  ele- 
ments— as  is  also  sulphur,  a  part  of  the  sulphur  in 
the  plant  remaining  as  ash  when  the'  plant  is  burned. 
The  three  elements  last  named  are  those  not  consid- 
ered essential  to  plant  growth.  In  the  case  of  some 
plants,  one  or  more  other  chemical  elements  may  be 
found  in  very  small  quantity. 

Oxygen  and  -hydrogen,  chemically  united  so  as 
to  form  water,  make  up  the  largest  part  of  any  living 
plant.  They  also,  in  different  combinations,  make 
up  perhaps  forty  per  cent  of  the  dry  matter.  Nearly 
or  quite  one-half  the  dry  matter  is  carbon.  Nitrogen 
sometimes  makes  as  much  as  four  per  cent  of  the  dry 
matter,. but  generally  not  nearly  so  much.  No  other 
element  is  in  nearly  so  large  supply,  and  the  percent- 
age of  some  is  very  small.  There  may  be  less  than 
one   pound  of  iron  in  the  hay  grown  on   an  acre  of 


2i  THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE. FARM.- 

good  soil,  but  without  this  very  small  quantity  the 
grass  could  not  have  grown. 

The  Structure  of  Plants.— Plants  are  made 
up  of  bags  or  sacks  called  cells,  usually  so  small  as 
to  be  seen  only  when  magnified.  These  cells  contain 
a  soft,  whitish  substance  named  protoplasm,  of  which 
we  know  but  little,  but  which  a  great  scientist  has 
called  "the  physical  basis  of  life."  This  is  enclosed 
in  a  "cell  wall."  The  cells  differ  much  in  form. 
They  may  be  round  or  long,  soft  or  hard.  Tubes  or 
vessels  are  formed  in  the  plant  by  rows  of  cells. 
There  are  many  cells  in  each  plant  of  the  kinds 
grown  by  farmers,  but  there  are  plants  each  of 
which  has  but  one  cell. 

Most  plants  with  which  farmers  have  to  do  have 
roots,  stems,  leaves,  and  flowers,  producing  seeds. 

The  roots  of  plants  vary  much  in  form.  The 
long,  thick  tap  root  of  a  clover  plant  is  much  unlike 
the  thread-like  roots  of  most  grasses.  The  ,tap  root 
has  many  small  branches  which  serve  important  pur- 
poses but  may  scarcely  be  noticed.  The  fibrous  or 
hair-like  grass  roots  have  a  "body"  to  which  they  are 
attached,  but  this  may  be  so  short  and  small  as  not  to 
be  noticed. 

Boots  of  plants  have  four  important  purposes. 
They  absorb  plant  food  from  the  soil.  They  often 
act  upon  the  solid  matter  of  the  soil  and  prepare  it  to 
be  absorbed.  In  many  cases  they  store  up  nourish- 
ment for  the  plant  and  hold  it  for  future  use.  They 
support  and  hold  the  plant  in  its  place. 

The  absorption  of  water  and  of  the  substances 
dissolved  and  held  in  solution  by  it  is  one  of  the  most 
important  purposes  served  by  roots.      All  the  ash  in- 


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FLINT  FOOD  AND  GROWTH.  25 

gredients  are  taken  up  in  solution,  almost  always  in 
a  very  weak  solution.  Roots  also  have  the  power  of 
dissolving  some  solid  substances  in  the  soil,  such  as 
potash  or  phosphorus,  and  then  absorbing  them.  This 
action  probably  depends  upon  the  acid  sap  in  the 
roots.  Roots  take  up  oxygen  gas  and  also  nitrogen, 
when  this  is  found  in  certain  chemical  combinations. 

The  power  of  absorption  by  roots  is  believed  to 
be  confined  to  a  small  space  nearly  at  their  tips;  the 
extreme  tip  being  covered  with  a  "root  cap"  of  solid 
dead  matter.  The  large  part  of  the  roots  have  im- 
portant uses,  but  not  as  food  gatherers. 

The  stem  and  its  branches  connect  the  roots  and 
leaves,  carrying  the  water  and  dissolved  solids  taken 
up  by  the  roots  to  the  leaves. 

The  leaves  are  often  called  the  lungs  of  plants. 
Their  action  in  relation  to  air  is  not,  however,  the 
same  as  that  of  animals  in  breathing,  either  in  man- 
ner or  effect.  Animals  inspire  the  air  and  give  it 
back  charged  with  carbonic  acid.  Plants  do  the  same 
to  a  considerable  extent.  But  plants,  also  have  an- 
other and  most  important  power,  entirely  unlike  any- 
thing possessed  by  animals.  The  leaves  especially 
have  the  power  of  taking  in  carbonic  acid  and  other 
gases  from  the  air.  The  carbonic  acid  is  decomposed, 
the  oxygen  given  back  to  the  air,  the  carbon  being  re- 
tained and  used  by  the  plant.  Starch  is  first  formed 
from  the  carbon  and  water.  This  is  changed 
into  sugar,  which  is  carried  in  the  sap  to  different 
parts  of  the  plant  and  used  to  build  them  up.  It  is 
hard  to  understand  just  how  this  is  done,  but  it  is 
probably  the  most  simple  of  the  several  processes 
necessary  to  the  building  up  of  the  plant  which  are 
carried  on  by  means  of  the  leaves. 


26    THE  SOILS  AND  CEOPS  OF  THE  FAKM. 

Plants  can  exercise  this  power  of  assimilating  car- 
bon from  the  air  only  in  the  light,  while  what  we  may 
properly  call  the  breathing  of  plants  goes  on  continu- 
ously. They  take  in  and  use  much  more  carbon 
than  they  give  off.  They  thus  make  the  air  more 
suitable  to  be  breathed  by  animals,  carbonic  acid  in 
any  considerable  quantity  in  the  air  being  injurious 
to  animal  life.  The  breathing  of  animals,  the  burn- 
ing or  slow  decay  of  vegetable  or  animal  matter,  in- 
creases the  supply  of  carbonic  acid  in  the  air,  thus 
better  fitting  it  for  the  use  of  plants. 

Leaves  are  believed  to  absorb  some  water,  especial- 
ly in  times  of  drouth,  when  the  soil  supplies  less  than 
the  plant  needs.  They  also  absorb  some  nitrogen  in 
the  form  of  ammonia.  They  giveofP  very  large  quan- 
tities of  wafcsr,  chiefly  through  small  openings  on  their 
under  sides.  These  openings  are  called  stomata.  Al- 
though the  shading  of  the  surface  by  plants  tends  to 
decrease  the  evaporation  of  water  from  the  soil,  th*9 
leaves  give  off  so  much  water  that  the  soil  is  usu- 
ally drier  when  covered  with  a  growing  crop  thai 
when  it  is  free  from  vegetation.  The  evaporation  of 
water  from  the  leaves  greatly  aids  the  upward  flow  of 
the  sap. 

Much  of  the  work  of  the  leaves  is  dependent  on 
aanlight,  and  much  of  it  is  done  by  means  of  the  green 
coloring  matter  of  the  leaves,  called  .chlorophyll. 

The  production  of  flowers  and  seeds  is  not  essen- 
tial to  the  growth  of  the  individual  plant.  The  seeds 
may  be  useful  to  man  in  many  ways  and  may  be  nec- 
essary for  a  future  supply  of  plants,  but  not  to  the 
growth  and  health  of  the  plant  producing  them.  In 
many  plants  maturing  the  seed  is  accompanied  or  fol- 
lowed by  the  death  of  the  plant. 


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PLANT  FOOD  AND  GROWTH.         27 

The  seeds  each  contain  a  very  small  plant  called 
the  germ  or  embryo;  also  a  quantity  of  plant  food, 
enclosed  in  a  coat  or  outer  covering.  The  germ  or 
little  plant  is  readily  examined  in  such  seeds  as  corn  or 
peas,  if  these  are  soaked  in  water  until  they  begin  to 
swell. 

The  matter  surrounding  the  germ  contains  all 
the  food  needed  to  support  the  little  plant  when  it 
commences  to  grow,  except  oxygen  and  water.  The 
principal  content  of  most  seeds  is  starch;  of  some,  as 
flax,  fat.  There  is  also  nitrogenous  or  albuminous 
matter,  and  all  the  ash  ingredients  needed  by  the  plant. 
The  young  plant  is  fed  and  nourished  by  the  food 
stored  up  in  the  seed  much  as  the  embryo  chick  is 
nourished  by  the  store  of  food  in  the  egg. 

Oermination  and  Growth. — Germination  of 
the  plant,  or  growth  of  the  germ  in  the  seed, 
commences  when  there  is  a  suitable  temperature 
and  a  sufficient  supply  of  moisture  and  oxygen. 
Warmth,  moisture  and  air,  or  oxygen  from  the  air, 
are  essential  to  the  growth  of  any  plant.  These  sup- 
plied the  growth  of  any  perfect  seed  will  certainly 
commence.  Under  like  conditions  the  growth  of  the 
"eye"  or  bud  in  a  potato  or  other  tuber  will  com- 
mence. 

The  seed  first  swells;  the  solid  matter  becomes 
soluble;  the  starch  or  fat  is  changed  into  a  form  of 
sugar;  the  germ  sends  out  a  root  called  the  "radicle," 
and  the  leaf  called  the  "plumule."  If  the  seed  is  sur- 
rounded by  soil  in  suitable  condition  the  radicle  soon 
begins  to  absorb  food  from  the  soil.  The  plumule  ex- 
tends upward  until  it  reaches  the  surface,  when  the 
leaves  more  fully  develop  and  begin  their  work. 


28  THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FABM. 

The  degree  of  heat  necessary  varies  much  with  dif- 
ferent plants.  Some  seeds  will  start  growth  at  a  tem- 
perature but  little  above  the  freezing  point;  others 
may  need  60  deg.  F.  The  quantity  of  moisture  nec- 
essary, also  varies  considerably.  There  may  be 
enough  to  cause  the  growth  to-  commence  but  not 
enough  to  contiuue  it.  If  the  seed  is  deeply  buried, 
the  food  supply  contained  in  it  may  be  exhausted  be- 
fore the  plumule  reaches  the  surface.  Usually  there 
is  no  good  reason  for  covering  seeds  more  deeply  than 
is  sufficient  to  secure  the  needed  supply  of  moisture. 
Deep  covering  of  small  seeds  especially,  is  not  desira- 
ble. 

The  order  of  growth  and  development  of  most 
plants  is  much  the  same,  with  variations  depending 
upon  whether  they  are  aMni^aZs;  that  is,  plants  like 
corn  or  wheat,  which  complete  their  growth  and  die 
within  a  year;  biennials,  which  live  two  years,  produc- 
ing seeds  only  the  second  year,  or  perennials,  which 
live  several  or  many  years,  sometimes  producing  seeds 
each  year  and  sometimes  only  rarely. 

In  each  class  there  is  first  a  considerable  growth 
of  both  roots  and  leaves.  With  annual  plants  there 
is  next  a  rapid  growth  of  the  seed  stalk;  then  bloom- 
ing and  the  production  of  seed.  With  biennial  plants 
there  is  a  storing  up  of  plant  food  in  the  roots,  stems, 
thick  leaves  or  tubers,  near  the  close  of  the  first  year's 
growth.  The  second  year  a  seed  stalk  is  produced, 
beariag  sefid  largely  made  up  from  the  food  stored  up 
the  first  year.  B9ets  and  cabbages  are  good  illustra- 
tions of  this  class  of  plants. 

In  the  young  plants  the  roots  furnish  a  larger 
percentage  of  food  than  after  growth  is  further  ad- 


PLANT  FOOD  AND  GROWTH.  29 

vanced.  In  the  later  stages  of  growth  comparative- 
ly little  is  received  from  the  soil,  but  so  long  as  the 
plant  remains  green  it  continues  to  absorb  carbon 
from  the  air  and  to  produce  starch,  sugar,  and  other 
compounds.  The  dry  matter  in  the  corn  plant  may 
more  than  double  in  weight  after  it  has  reached  its 
full  height. 

Much  of  the  material  stored  up  in  the  matured 
seed  has  been  taken  from  the  roota,  stalks  and  leaves, 
in  the  case  of  annual  as  well  as  biennial  plants.  There 
is  valuable  food  for  animals  in  the  stalks  and  leaves 
of  fully  matured  plants — notably  in  the  grasses  and 
clovers — but  much  less  than  before  the  seeds  have  ma- 
tured. The  food  is  not  lost,  but  transferred  from 
other  parts  of  the  plant  to  the  seed.  The  production 
of  seed  is  the  chief  purpose  of  many  plants,  not  only 
that  they  may  perpetuate  their  kind  but  that  they 
may  be  most  useful  to  man. 


CHAPTER   II. 

THE  SOIL. 

The  soil  is  the  upper  stratum  of  the  earth;  the  fine- 
ly divided  portion  of  the  surface  into  which  plants 
send  their  roots  and  from  which  they  obtain  much  of 
their  food.  The  sub-soil  is  that  which  lies  beneath 
the  surface  soil.  Sometimes  the  word  is  used  to  de- 
scribe the  soil  lying  below  the  depth  which  is  usually 
cultivated,  and  sometimes  it  means  a  stratum  of  soil 
differing  in  color,  texture  or  composition  from  that  at 
the  surface.  Examination  of  different  soils  shows 
that  in  some  there  is  much  stone  or  gravel;  of  others 
the  greater  part  is  sand  of  differing  degrees  of  fine- 
ness, still  others  being  mainly  made  up  of  matter  in 
very  small  particles,  which  we  call  clay. 

In  all  soil  capable  of  producing  crops  traces  of  de- 
caying or  decayed  vegetable  matter  are  found ;  in 
some  this  matter  forms  a  considerable  percentage  of 
the  soil.  Most  soils  may  be  described  as  either 
sandy  or  clayey,  according  as  one  or  the  other  of  these 
substances  is  evidently  present  in  largest  percentage. 
If  there  is  more  tham  90  per  cent,  of  either,  the 
surface  is  spoken  of,  not  as  soil,  but  as  sand  or 
clay. 

If  there  is  a  nearly  equal  division  the  soil  is  best 
described  as  loam — or  as  sandy  loam  or  clayey  loam, 
if  one  or  the  other  ingredient  is  in  somewhat  larger 
supply  than  the  other.  If  stones  or  gravel  are  present 
in  large  amount,  the  soil  is  called  stony  or  gravelly, 
without  regard  to  whether  it  is  otherwise  clay  or  sand- 
so 


THE  SOIL.  31 

So,  if  lime  is  present  in  an  unusually  large  amount, 
tlie  soil  may  be  spoken  of  as  limey  or  calcareous. 

The  decayed  vegetable  matter  in  soils  is  called  hu- 
mus. If  this  is  in  large  supply  the  soil  is  called  peat, 
swamp  muck,  or  more  rarely,  vegetable  mold. 

Formation  and  Distribution  of  l^oils.— 
All  the  mineral  matter  in  soil  was  .once  solid  rock. 
The  breaking  up  or  disintegration  of  rocks  and  the 
addition  of  vegetable  matter  has  formed  the  soil  as 
it  now  exists.  Not  only  are  fragments  of  rock  found 
in  many  soils  by  even  careless  inspection ;  not  only 
does  chemical  analysis  show  that  soil  is  composed  of 
the  same  elements  as  those  which  are  found  in  rosks, 
but  the  process  of  soil  formation  may  be  seen  and 
studied  in  many  places.  It  is  said  that  in  less  than 
100  years  lava  rock  thrown  from  volcanoes,  in  such 
quantity  as  to  thickly  cpver  the  mountain  sides  or  the 
valleys  below,  has  been  changed  into  fertile  soil. 

Air  and  water  have  been  the  chief  agents  in  soil 
formation;  not  pure  air  and  pure  water,  but  air  and 
water  as  they  are  ordinarily  found  in  nature.  In 
the  air  there  13  always  a  very  small  percentage  of  car- 
bonic acid.  This  is  dissolved  in  or  absorbed  by 
water  and  has  a  powerful  effect  in  causing  rocks  to 
disiategrate  into  sand  or  clay.  It  works  slowly  but 
Burely.  The  oxygen  of  the  air  also  unites  with  the 
iron  or  manganese  compounds  in  the  rocks,  thus  hast- 
eniag  the  breaking  up  of  the  rocks. 

Water  has  even  a  greater  influence  on  rocks  than 
has  the  air.  Pure  water  has  a  considerable  power  of 
dissolving  mineral  compounds.  This  power  is  much 
greater  when  the  water  contains  carbonic  acid.  The 
freezing  of  water  aids  greatly  in  this   work.     Water 


32  THE  SOILS  AND  CEOPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

expands  as  it  freezes  aad  exerts  a  great  force  in  so 
doing.  When  water  which  has  collected  in  cracks  or 
low  places  on  the  surface  of  rocks  freezes  it  may  split 
off  a  great  mass  from  the  mountain  side  or  a  tiny  frag- 
ment from  a  grain  of  sand.  As  freezing  and  thaw- 
ing go  on  year  after  year  the  effect  in  breaking 
up  rocks  and  in  pulverizing  the  soil  is  very  great. 
Water  and  ice  in  motion  have  a  great  influence  in 
the  formation  and  distribution  of  soils.  A  little 
stream  as  it  flows  down  a  hill-side  carries  with  its 
water,  especially  when  swollen  by  rains,  little  stones, 
sand  and  earth.  As  these  move  they  loosen  other 
stones.  A  large  stream  or  a  great  river  does  the  same 
work  on  a  vastly  larger  scale.  Streams  may  change 
their  course,  washing  out  new  channels  and  carrying 
the  rooks  and  soils  to  be  distributed  over  lower  lying 
land.  The  great  deltas  at  the  mouths  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, the  Nile  and  the  Amazon  illustrate  on  a  large 
scale  the  kind  of  work  which  running  water  is  doing 
in  moving  soil  wherever  there  is  a  stream.  The 
word  and  rounded  pebbles  at  the  brook  side,  contrast- 
ed with  sharp-edged,  freshly  broken  rook,  show  the 
power  of  moving  water  to  wear  and  pulverize  as 
well  as  to  carry  solid  substances. 

Glaciers  or  streams  of  ice  slowly  moving  down 
mountain  sides,  carry  with  them  masses  of  stone  and 
earth,  and  crush  and  grind  the  rocks  over  which  or 
past  which  they  move.  There  is  good  evidence  that 
in  past  ages  glaciers  have  done  much  work  in  many 
parts  of  the  earth.  Icebergs  carry  masses  of  rock  and 
much  earth,  and  distribute  these  as  they  melt. 

With  some  or  all  these   forces  acting  continuously 


THE  SOIL.  33 

for  many  centuries,  it  can  be  understood  how  what 
was  once  solid  rock  has  become  as  finely  divided  as 
is  the  mineral  part  of  the  best  soils. 

It  is  evident  that  comparatively  a  small  portion 
of  the  soil  of  the  earth  remains  where  it  was  when 
it  was  rock.  Analysis  of  some  soils  shows  that 
they  have  the  same  composition  as  the  rocks  which 
underlie  them.  Such  soils  are  usually  of  only 
moderate  depths.  In  most  soils,  however,  there 
are  fragments  of  rook  different  from  that  found 
underlying  or  in  adjacent  hills.  It  needs  no  argu- 
ment to  show  that  the  surface  soil  at  the  foot 
of  hills,  along  the  banks  of  many  streams,  or 
where  there  was  once  a  lake,  has  been  carried  there 
by  water.  Sometimes  valleys  have  been  tilled  to  a 
great  depth  and,  later,  a  channel  worn  through  this 
filled  valley  by  a  river.  Soils  which  remain  where 
they  were  formed  are  called  sedentary  soils,  or  soils 
in  place.  Those  which  have  been  moved  in,  or  after, 
the  process  of  soil  formation,  are  called  transported 
soils.  Those  which  have  been  carried  by  moving 
water  are  called  alluvial  soils.  These  usually  are  in 
layers  or  strata,  sometimes  differing  in  the  kind  of 
material,  almost  always  differing  noticeably  in  the 
fineness  of  division.  Soils  which  were  deposited  by 
glaciers  are  called  drift.  The  most  noticeable  quality 
of  these  is  the  presence  of  boulders.  Wherever  these 
large,  rounded  rocks  are  found  it  may  safely  be  de- 
cided there  has  been  glacial  action  in  the  remote  past. 
Sometimes  drift  and  alluvial  soils  are  mingled  togeth- 
er. Drift  soils  cover  much  of  the  United  States  north 
of  the  39th.  parallel  of  latitude. 


34  '        THE  SOILS  AND  CHOPS  OF  THE  FAKM. 

Tegetable  Matter  in  ISoils. — Plants  of  a  low 
order,  as  lichens  and  mosses,  are  able  to  live  on  rocks 
the  surface  of  which  has  been  very  slightly  acted  on 
by  the  air  and  moisture.  These  plants  have  the  pow- 
er, probably  through  the  agency  of  the  acid  sap,  of 
partly  or  wholly  burying  their  roots  in  the  rock,  cling- 
ing so  closely  to  it  that  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to 
chip  off  pieces  of  the  rock  to  secure  specimens  of  the 
plants.  Minute  furrows  are  often  left  in  the  rock  sur- 
face after  the  plants  have  decayed.  The  decay  of 
these  plants  adds  a  trifle  of  vegetable  matter  to  the 
mineral  elements  of  the  soil,  thus  fitting  for  a  more 
abundant  growth  or  for  plants  of  a  higher  order.  At 
last  there  is  a  considerable  supply  of  humus  or  decayed 
vegetable  matter  mingled  with  the  mineral  matter. 
The  plants  have  aided  in  the  work  of  disintegrating 
the  rock  in  several  ways,  both  while  living  and  when 
decaying,  and  the  humus  they  leave  in  the  soil  is  a 
most  important  element  of  fertility,  being  a  chief  source 
of  the  nitrogen  of  the  soil. 

The  decayed  and  decaying  vegetable  matter  in  soils 
is  often  spoken  of  as  "organic  matter,"  and  the  same 
term  is  applied  to  aninaal  matter  in  the  soil. 

Chemical  Composition  of  Noils. — A  soil  cap- 
able of  sustaining  plants  must  contain  all  the  min- 
eral, ash,  or  incombustible  substances  found  in  plants, 
for  the  plants  can  obtain  these  from  no  other  source. 
It  will  also  contain  alumina.  Such  a  soil  will  also 
always  contain,  in  some  form,  sometimes  in  several 
combinations,  each  of  the  elements  which  pass  into 
the  air  when  a  plant  is  burned ;  but  as  the  air  is  the 
source  from  which  the  soil  obtains  these  substances, 


THE  SOIL.  35 

the  soil  proper  may  be  said  to  be  composed  of  the  fol- 
lowing substances: 
Phosphorus — (Phosphor-      Sodium — (Soda. ) 

ic  acid.)  Magnesium — (Magnesia.) 

Potassium — (Potash.)  Chlorine. 

Lime.  Silicon — (Silica.) 

Iron  — (Oxide  of  Iron.)         Aluminum — (Alumina.) 
Sulphur — (Sulphuric  acid.) 

These  substances  make  up  90  or  95  per  cent,  of 
most  fertile  soils,  the  remainder  being  humus,  or  de- 
cayed vegetable  matter.  In  peaty  soils  this  last  may 
be  a  fourth  or  even  a  half  of  the  soil,  but  some  fertile 
soils  have  not  more  than  two  or  three  per  cent  of  hu- 
mus. It  will  be  remembered  that  the  mineral  or  ash 
constituents  of  plants  usually  constitute  not  more  than 
five  per  cent,  of  the  whole  plant.  All  the  substances 
named  above,  except  alumina,  are  always  found  in 
plants,  and  alumina  is  always  found  in  good  soils. 
In  one  sense  it  may  be  said  all  are  essential;  hence 
equally  important.  Some,  however,  are  always  found 
in  abundance,  while  others  are  frequently  in  insuffi- 
cient supply  for  the  production  of  good  crops.  This 
is  especially  true  of  phosphoric  acid  and  potash. 
Hence  these  substances  are  often  spoken  of  as  the 
most  important  mineral  elements  in  the  soil. 

If  sand  be  thought  of  as  silica,  and  alumina  as  the 
base  or  foundation  of  clay,  the  other  element  being 
silica,  it  will  be  evident  there  is  no  lack  of  these  two 
substances.  Lime  and  iron  are  found  in  most  soils  in 
great  abundance,  so  far  as  their  use  as  plant  food  is 
concerned.  The  other  substances  are  not  found  in  so 
large  quantities,  but  almost  any  soil  contains  more  of 
them  than  crops  need.     A  like  condition  is  found  as 


S6    THE  SOILS  AND  CEOPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

regards  the  elements  of  plant  food  which  pass  into  the 
air  when  the  plant  is  burned  or  decays.  There  is  a 
great  abundance  of  carbon,  in  the  form  of  carbonic 
acid,  in  the  air  and  in  most  soils.  Oxygen  and  hydro- 
gen as  water,  and  oxygen  in  combination  wich  many 
substances,  are  usually  in  abundant  supply.  Nitrogen, 
however,  although  it  forms  the  larger  part  of  the  air, 
is  often  only  sparingly  found  in  either  the  soil  or  air 
in  such  a  state  that  plants  can  feed  upon  it,  most 
plants  being  able  to  make  use  of  nitrogen  only  when 
it  is  combined  with  some  other  element — in  such  com- 
pounds as  ammonia  and  nitric  acid.  Hence,  while  no 
more  essential  to  plant  growth  than  is  oxygen,  hy- 
drogen or  carbon,  nitrogen  is  commonly  spoken  of  as 
the  most  important  of  the  combustible  parts  of  plants. 

In  discussions  concerning  manuring  or  the  value  of 
different  artificial  manures  or  commercial  fertilizers, 
nitrogen,  as  ammonia  or  as  nitric  acid;  phosphorus,  as 
phosphoric  acid,  and  potassium,  as  potash,  are  referred 
to  very  much  more  than  any  other  or  than  all 
other  substa  Aces. 

Soils  differ  much  in  their  fertility,  or  power 
of  producing  crops.  This  may  be  because  in  one 
soil  there  is  a  more  abundant  supply  of  one  or  more 
of  the  chemical  elements  which  have  been  named 
as  essential  to  the  growth  of  plants.  A  soil  may,  how- 
ever, have  an  abundant  supply  of  each  of  these  ele- 
ments, and  yet  not  produce  good  crops,  because  some 
of  them  may  not  be  in  a  condition  in  which  the  plants 
can  use  them.  This  may  be  because  of  poor  physical 
conditions  or  because  the  elements  of  plant  food  are 
in  such  chemical  combinations  as  to  make  them  use- 
less for  the  "present,  at  least.     Much  of  the  soil  is  not 


THE   SOIL.  37 

capable  of  furnishing  food  to  plants.  Neither  pure 
silica  nor  pure  clay  can  be  used  as  food  by  plants. 

By  far  the  largest  part  of  the  substances  in  the  soil 
which  are  capable  of  being  made  plant  food  is  not 
available  for  this  use  at  any  given  time.  Probably 
not  one  per  cent,  of  even  the  most  fertile  soils  is  avail- 
able plant  food.  It  is  fortunate  this  is  the  case.  In 
order  that  the  mineral  ingredients  of  the  soil  may  be 
used  as  food  for  plants  they  must  be  soluble  in  water 
or  in  weak  acid  solutions.  Were  the  mass  of  them 
in  such  condition  there  would  be  much  waste  and  loss. 
The  air,  the  water,  the  frost;  the  action  of  worms  and 
burrowing  animals;  the  tillage  of  the  soil  by  man;  the 
growth  and  decay  of  plants — all  these  are  continually 
changing  the  dormant,  unavailable,  potential  plant 
food  of  the  soil  into  forms  in  which  it  may  be  active  or 
available  in  the  nourishment  of  plants.  Sometimes 
the  processes  of  manufacture  of  available  food  go  on 
faster  than  the  food  is  used  by  the  crops  grown.  In 
such  case  the  fertility  of  the  soil  increases.  Some- 
times the  new  supplies  of  available  food  are  furnished 
more  slowly  than  the  crops  grown  and  removed  by 
the  farmer  make  use  of  such  food.  In  such  cases  the 
land  becomes  less  fertile;  tends  to  become  exhausted. 

Value  of  Chemical  Analysis  of  8oil. — An 
examination  of  a  soil  by  a  chemist  will  show,  with 
great  exactness,  of  what  it  is  composed,  and  the^rela, 
tive  proportions  of  the  elements.  It  may  show  that 
there  is  evidently  a  too  small  supply  of  some  essential 
ingredient.  Or  it  may  show  that  there  is  some  sub- 
stance or  some  combination  present  which  will  be  in- 
jurious to  plants.  In  these  ways  such  an  examina- 
tion may  give  most  valuable  suggestions  as  to  manur- 


38  THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

ing  the  soil  or  other  methods  of  in>proving  its  fertil- 
ity. A  chemical  analysis,  however,  will  not  show  with 
certainty  whether  the  substances  of  which  the  soil  is 
composed  are  in  condition  to  be  available  as  plant  food. 
Often  it  gives  very  little  help  to  an  understanding  of 
whether  or  no  the  soil  is  in  good  physical  condition. 
The  chemist  is  able  to  state  not  only  the  actual  and 
relative  quantity  of  each  element  found  in  the  soil  but 
also  the  percentage  of  this  which  is  soluble  in  water 
and  soluble  in  acids.  This  information  helps  greatly 
in  estimating  the  quantity  of  each  which  is  probably 
in  suitable  condition  to  be  taken  up  and  used  by  plants. 

Uses  of  the  Soil. — So  far  as  plant  growth  is  con- 
cerned the  soil  has  three  important  uses.  It  furnish- 
es a  home  for  plants.  The  roots  penetrate  it  and 
thus  are  enabled  to  hold  the  plant  firmly  in  place.  It 
also  is  a  store-house  of  plant  food;  both  of  the  large, 
but  relatively  small  quantity  which  is  available  for 
immediate  use  by  the  plant,  and  the  vastly  greater 
quantity  which  is  capable  of  being  made  available. 
It  is  also  a  laboratory  in  which  tKe  work  of  prepara- 
tion of  available  plant  food  is  continually  going  on. 
The  soil  is  not  to  be  thought  of  as  a  finished  product; 
as  containing  simply  a  fixed  supply  of  food  for  plants. 
Soil  formation  is  still  going  on.  The  forces  of  nature 
are  every  day  making  available  plant  food  in  the  soil 
of  materials  which,  heretofore,  were  unfitted  for  use 
by  plants. 

Fortunately  the  farmer  can  help  the  soil  to  be  better 
for  his  purpose.  He  can  so  treat  it  that  roots  may 
more  readily  penetrate  it,  and  more  readily  find  ac- 
cess to  its  store  of  available  plant  food,  and  he  can 
aid  the  "weathering"  forces  of  nature  in  increasing 
the  supply  of  such  food. 


yiw 


<x.^  /^C^,   6Ui^ 


^^U-^.  ^^V^ 

4^^^.^/-^^- 


CHAPTER  III. 

PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  SOILS. 

Among  the  most  noticaable  or  important  physical 
characteristics  of  soils  are  weight,  color,  adhesiveness, 
fineness  of  division,  and  their  relations  to  heat,  to 
moisture,  to  gases,  and  to  dissolved  solids.  In  regard 
to  all  these,  soils  differ  much,  and  these  differences 
have  much  to  do  with  the  differing  capabilities  of  soils 
in  producing  crops.  Differences  in  physical  proper- 
ties depend  largely  on  the  proportion  in  which  sand, 
clay,  lime,  stones,  and  vegetable  matter  are  combined 
in  the  soil. 

Sand  is  heavy;  is  usually  light  colored;  the  grains 
do  not  stick  together.  It  has  little  power  of  attract- 
ing moisture  from  the  air,  and  allows  water  to  run 
through  it  readily.  It  absorbs  and  retains  heat  well. 
A  soil  with  much  sand  in  it  will  be  dry  and  warm; 
easy  to  work;  not  sticky;  will  not  "bake."  In  dry 
weather  crops  on  such  soils  will  suffer  from  lack  of 
moisture.  Soluble  plant  food  will  leach  through  such 
a  soil. 

Clay,  or  a  soil  with  much  clay,  has  a  fine  texture, 
and  the  particles  adhere  tenaciously.  It  absorbs 
moisture  from  the  air  readily,  draws  water  from  be- 
low by  what  is  known  as  capillary  power,  holds  it  well. 
This  tends  to  make  such  a  soil  cool,  but  it  will  absorb 
heat  readily.  It  absorbs  and  holds  ammonia  and  other 
gases  readily.  If  stirred  while  wet  it  becomes  hard; 
often  cracks  in  drying.  It  differs  much  in  color. 
The  presence  of  iron  will  give  a  red  color.     Common- 

S9 


40         THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

ly  it  is  a  light  yellowish  color.  Clay  soils  usually 
have  more  plant  food  than  sandy  ones;  they  hold 
moisture  better,  and  there  is  less  loss  of  soluble  ma- 
nures or  available  plant  food  by  leaching.  They  are 
^ard  to  work,  and  are  often  too  cold  and  wet  unless 
well  drained.  They  "heave"  as  the  result  of  freezing 
and  thawiAg. 

A  mixture  of  sand  and  clay  makes  a  better  soil 
than  one  almost  entirely  composed  of  either.  The 
additiourof  clay  to  sand  makes  it  more  tenacious;  ena- 
bles it  the  better  to  absorb  and  hold  moisture  and 
gases;  gives  it  greater  capillary  power;  enables  it  to 
withstand  drouth  better,  and,  usually,  will  make  it 
cooler.  The  addition  of  sand  to  clay  makes  it  more 
easily  penetrable  by  the  roots  of  plants;  more  easy  to 
work;  somewhat  warmer;  less  injured  by  being  worked 
when  wet;  less  apt  to  "heave." 

Humus,  or  decayed  vegetable  matter  in  soils,  makes 
them  light  in  weight  and  dark  in  color;  greatly  in- 
creases their  power  to  absorb  moisture  from  the  air 
and  their  capillary  power;  makes  clay  soil  less 
and  sandy  soil  more  compact.  It  will  be  seen  that, 
aside  from  its  value  as  a  source  of  plant  food,  hu- 
mus is  important  in  improving  the  physical  condi- 
tion of  the  soil.  Most  soils  containing  much  humus 
are  fertile,  if  not  too  wet. 

Lime  in  soils  has  a  considerable  importance  aside 
from  its  use  as  food  for  plants.  It  improves  the  tex- 
ture by  making  clay  soils  more  easily  worked  and 
sandy  soils  more  compact.  It  hastens  the  decay  of 
.vegetable  matter. 

Weight. — The  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  dry,  loamy 
0oil  may  be  one  hundred  pounds,  or  even  more.     The 


>*  ^#v 


PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  SOILS.  41 

more  sand  or  gravel  the  heavier  the  soil;  the  more 
vegetable  matter,  the  lighter  it  will  be.  It  is  said 
some  peat  soils  weigh  not  more  than  thirty  pounds  per 
cubic  foot.  Few  soils  ordinarily  cultivated  will  weigh 
less  than  seventy-five  or  eighty  pounds  per  cubic  foot. 
The  soil  on  an  acre,  43,560  square  feet,  to  the  depth 
of  one  foot,  will  weigh  rarely  less  than  3,000,000 
pounds  and  often  more  than  4,000,000  pounds,  or 
1,500  to  2,000  wagon-loads  of  one  ton  each.  It  will  be 
seen  that  even  though  only  a  small  percentage  of  the 
soil  is  ever  in  condition  to  be  available  as  plant  food, 
there  may  still  be  an  enormous  quantity  of  such  food 
present  in  the  first  few  inches  of  soil — enough  to  pro- 
duce the  largest  crops.  A  sandy  soil  may  have  a 
greater  supply  of  plant  food  than  a  clay  soil,  because 
of  the  greater  weight,  even  though  it  have,  as  is  usu- 
ally the  case,  a  smaller  percentage  of  such  food. 

Soils  are  often  spoken  of  as  "light"  or  "heavy"  not 
with  reference  to  their  actual  weight,  but  to  their  te- 
nacity. In  this  sense  a  sandy  soil  is  "light"  and  easily 
worked,  and  a  clay  soil  "heavy,"  although  lighter  in 
weight  than  the  sandy  soil.  A  soil  with  much  vegeta- 
ble matter  will  be  light  in  both  senses  of  the  word. 

Texture. — xill  soils  are  porous,  that  is,  have  small 
open  spaces  between  the  solid  particles.  Into  these 
the  air  and  water  pass,  gases  are  condensed,  and  the 
roots  of  plants  penetrate  in  search  for  food.  A  solid 
mass  of  pure  plant  food  would  give  little  nourishment 
to  a  plant.  A  finely  divided  soil  in  which  there  is  a 
very  small  percentage  of  plant  food  may  produce  fair 
crops.  A  large  number  of  small  pores  is  desirable. 
Coarse  sand  has  large  openings  between  its  grains. 
A  good  loam  or  a  well  pulverized  clay  soil  has  a  molti- 


42         THE  SOILS  AND  CKOPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

tude  of  minute  pores.  The  sand  can  do  little  in  ab- 
soroing  or  drawing  up  water  or  holding  it;  has  little 
power  to  condense  or  hold  gases  and  can  give  little 
food  to  plants. 

It  is  possible  to  have  a  soil  too  finely  divided.  The 
particles  of  which  it  is  composed  may  be  so  closely 
compacted  that  neither  air,  water,  gases,  nor  the  roots 
of  plants  can  freely  penetrate  to  the  soil.  This  con- 
dition is  not  a  common  one,  is  rarely  found  except  in 
compa,ct  clay  soils  Often  the  most  important  work 
of  the  farmer  in  preparing  a  soil  for  crops  is  in  pul- 
verizing it — crushing  clods,  reducing  the  number  of 
large  open  spaces  and  so  greatly  increasing  the  number 
of  minute  pores,  and  the  quantity  of  plant  food  with 
which  tho  roots  of  plants  can  come  into  close  contact 
and  thus  be  enabled  to  use. 

Prof.  James  Mills  says:  "No  matter  what  the  com- 
position of  a  soil  may  be,  it  will  not  produce  good 
crops  unless  it  is  of  a  proper  mechanical  texture.  It 
must  be  firm  enough  to  give  the  required  support  to 
the  crops  growing  in  it,  and  yet  sufficiently  loose  to 
allow  the  delicate  root  fibers  to  extend  freely  in  all 
directions,  according  to  their  habit  of  growth — fine 
enough  to  give  capillary  power,  to  hold  water,  to  re- 
tain fertilizers,  to  absorb  and  retain  atmospheric 
moisture  and  ammonia,  and  yet  loose  and  open  enough 
to  admit  air  freely  down  among  its  particles  and  to 
let  the  excess  of  water  drain  away.  In  soil  of  the 
right  texture  water  neither  lies  on  the  surface  nor 
soaks  very  quickly  through  into  the  sub- soil.  The  excess 
soon  passes  away  and  enough  is  retained  to  keep  the 
soil  moist  and  in  a  fit  condition  for  the  growth  of 
crops,  except  in  very  wet  or  excessively  dry  weather. 


tUz.uC.  (Lajl^.  d^^-  ^" 


■''     j-r^^(>C. 


PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  sblLS.  43 

Rain  water  is  the  great  carrier,  the  distributor,  and, 
to  some  extent,  the  manufacturer,  of  plant  food,  and 
unless  there  is  a  free  passage  for  it  through  the  soil, 
the  food  of  plants  will  not  be  well  prepared,  nor  will 
the  stationary  plant  root  be  properly  fed." 

Relations  of  8oil  to  Water. — All  soils  have 
the  power  of  absorbing  and  retaining  water,  but  the 
extent  to  which  this  can  be  done  differs  much,  depend- 
ing on  the  composition  of  the  soil  and  its  porosity. 
A  soil  with  large  pores,  as  coarse  sand,  allows  water 
to  percolate  or  run  through  it  readily,  retaining  little. 
Water  poured  on  a  soil  with  many  small  pores  will 
permeate  it,  saturating  it  thoroughly,  and  the  soil  will 
hold  much  of  it,  unless  the  pores  are  very  small,  in 
which  case  the  water  may  not  be  able  to  enter  them. 

Soils  not  only  have  the  power  to  hold  some  of  the 
water  which  passes  through  them  but  also  the  power 
of  drawing  water  from  below  and  holding  it.  This 
is  known  as  capillary  power.  The  action  of  the  soil 
in  this  respect  is  like  that  of  a  lamp-wick  in  drawing 
up  oil.  If  the  bottom  of  a  tube  containing  soil  is 
placed  in  contact  with  water,  the  latter  will  be  drawn 
up  one,  two,  three  or  even  more  feet  owing  to  the 
character  and  fineness  of  division  of  the  soil.  The 
soil  will  take  up  so  much  in  this  way  that  if  a  little 
more  water  is  poured  into  the  top  of  the  tube,  the 
water  will  begin  to  run  out  below.  Good  soils  will 
frequently  absorb  and  hold  one-half  or  more  of  their 
own  weight  of  water;  some  will  hold  much  more  than 
this.  Those  with  a  large  pecentage  of  humus  will 
hold  the  largest  percentage  of  water. 

Soils  also  have  the  power  of  absorbing  moisture  or 
vapor  of  water  from  the  air.      This  is  called  hygro- 


U  THE  SOILS  AND  CKOPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

scopic  power.  The  quantity  of  water  so  absorbed  is 
comparatively  small,  although  in  extreme  cases  it  may 
be  as  much  as  five  per  cent.  A  thoroughly  dried  soil 
will  absorb  moisture  from  the  air  if  the  latter  contains 
it,  but,  ordinarily,  the  soil  gives  to  the  air  much  more 
moisture  by  evaporation  than  it  absorbs  from  it. 
Even  when  the  soil  seems  perfectly  dry  it  contains 
considerable  moisture,  as  may  be  proV'ed  by  heating  it. 
In  examinations  of  a  large  number  of  samples  of  the 
loamy  prairie  soil  at  the  Illinois  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station,  during  times  of  unusual  drouth,  the 
surf  ace  .soil,  to  the  depth  of  six  inches,  was  found  to 
contain  less  than  ten  per  cent  of  water,  in  only  a  few 
samples;  in  but  a  single  sample  was  as  little  as  eight 
per  cent  of  water  found.  The  soil  at  greater  depths 
contained  more  than  the  surface  soil  in  each  sample 
examined. 

When  rain  falls  in  time  of  drouth,  the  surface  soil 
becomes  saturated.  As  the  rain  continues  the  depth 
of  saturation  increases  until  rock,  impervious  clay  or 
hard-pan  is  reached,  or  the  water  in  excess  of  what 
the  soil  can  hold  passes  down  into  the  sandy  or 
gravelly  sub -soil,  or  through  underground  drains.  As 
the  water  goes  down,  carrying  with  it  carbonic  acid 
and  oxygen,  it  helps  decompose  the  materials  of  the 
soil,  making  the  potash,  phosphoric  acid,  lime,  etc., 
soluble  and  suitable  for  the  use  of  plants.  Some  of 
this  dissolved  mineral  matter  is  carried  down  by  the 
water.  In  time  of  heavy  rains  there  is  a  loss  of  plant 
food  through  drains  or  in  the  open  sub-soil. 

After  the  rain  ceases,  evaporation  commences,  with 
greater  or  less  rapidity,  depending  on  the  temperature 
and  dryness  of  the  atmosphere.      As  the  surface  be- 


PHYSICAL  PEOPEBTIES  OF  SOILS.  45 

comes  dry,  water  begins  to  ascend,  because  of  the 
capillary  power  of  the  soil.  The  water  brings  with  it 
some  of  the  soluble  plant  food  in  the  soil,  thus  bring- 
ing to  the  surface  roots  of  plants .  a  good  supply  of 
food.  The  water  as  it  evaporates  cannot  carry  the 
dissolved  mineral  plant  food  into  the  air,  so  that,  so 
long  a3  evaporation  goes  on,  the  surface  soil  accumu- 
lates these  salts.  In  regions  in  which  there  is  little  or 
no  rain  there  is  a  considerable  accumulation  on  the 
surface.  The  alkaline  plains  of  our  western  territo- 
ries are  a  good  illustration,  but  the  best  is  found  in 
the  great  beds  of  nitrate  of  soda  on  the  west  coast  of 
South  America.  In  caves  or  under  old  houses  the 
soil  often  contains  a  large  supply  of  saltpetre  and 
other  salts. 

Although  there  is  often  some  loss  from  plant  food 
being  carried  off  in  drainage  water  the  upward  and 
downward  mjDvement  of  water  in  soils  is  helpful  in 
several  ways.  The  water  not  only  does  a  great  work 
in  making  plant  food  available  in  the  soil  and  bring- 
ing it  into  contact  with  th.e  roots  of  plants,  but  it  also 
carries  into  the  soil  carbonic  acid,  ammonia  and  nitric 
acid  from  the  air.  Often  the  rain  is  warmer  than  the 
soil  and  thus  increases  the  temperature  of  the  latter. 
As  the  water  goes  down  it  is  followed  by  the  air  and 
this  aids  in  decomposing  the  mineral  matter  of  the 
soil. 

While  water,  especially  when  charged  with  gases, 
has  the  power  of  dissolving  some  of  the  mineral  mat- 
ter of  the  soil,  and  has  a  tendency  to  carry  with  it 
the  finely  divided  matter  and  all  dissolved  solids,  the 
soil  has  the  important  property  of  attracting  and 
holding  the  dissolved  solids  it  finds  in  water.     The 


46  THE  SOILS  AKD  CBOPS  OF  THE  FXti^. 

water  which  flows  from  a  heap  of  stable  manure  will 
not  only  carry  away  some  of  the  small  fragments  of 
litter  but  will  be  discolored  and  offensive  to  smell  and 
taste  because  it  has  absorbed  and  holds  gases  and  dis- 
solved solid  substances.  If  this  water  be  made  to 
pass  through  a  vessel  containing  finely  divided  soil, 
it  will  come  out  comparatively  pure  as  tested  by  sight, 
smell  and  taste.  The  soil  has  not  only  collected  on 
its  surface  the  matter  which  was  not  finely  enough 
divided  to  enter  the  pores  of  the  soil,  but  its  particles 
have  had  a  stronger  attraction  for  the  dissolved  solids 
than  that  possessed  by  the  water.  If,  however,  a 
large  quantity  of  water  charged  with  this  solid  matter 
passes  through  the  soil,  the  power  of  the  soil  to  absorb 
the  solid  matter  will  be  exhausted  and  the  water  will 
come  through  in  much  the  same  condition  in  which 
it  entered  the  soil.  If  now  pure  water  be  passed 
through  this  soil  fully  charged  with  the  solid  matter 
it  has  absorbed,  the  water  will  flow  out  more  or  less 
affected  in  color,  smell  and  taste.  Did  not  soils 
have  this  power,  the  water  in  many  wells  would  be 
unfit  for  use.  That  it  does  not  possess  this  property 
in  unlimited  degree  is  illustiiated  by  the  fact  that  the 
water  in  a  good  many  wells  is  unfit  for  use. 

Clay  soils  possess  this  power  in  a  much  greater  de- 
gree than  sandy  soils.  A  soil  with  much  humus 
also  has  this  power  in  a  noticeable  degree.  In  a  sandy 
soil  there  is  much  more  loss  of  plant  food  by  the  leach- 
ing power  of  water  than  in  a  clayey  or  humus  soil. 

Absorption  ami  Condennation  of  Oases. — 
It  has  already  been  indicated  that  soils  have  the  power 
of  absorbing  gases  from  air  or  from  water.  The 
offensive  smell  of  decaying  animal  matter  is  entirely 


UJa^oO^  S^-ix.^.  McU/.Tu-i.     ^1    ^i-^'^'-i- 


PHYSICAL  PKOPERTIES  OF  SOILS.  47 

prevented  by  burying  the  putrid  matter  in  the  soil. 
The  efficiency  of  the  earth-closet  system  of  disposing 
of  human  excrement  largely  depends  on  this  power. 
As  vegetable  or  animal  matter  decays  in  the  soil  the 
latter  absorbs  and  holds  much  of  the  ammonia  and 
carbonic  acid  given  off,  and  also  absorbs  these  as  they 
are  brought  to  and  into  the  soil  by  the  rain  and 
winds.  Clayey  and  humus  soils  can  do  this  to  a 
greater  extent  than  can  sandy  soils. 

Relations  of  8oil  to  Heat. — The  temperature  of 
the  soil  near  the  surface  changes  as  that  of  the  air 
varies,  although  more  slowly.  During  the  day,  es- 
pecially if  the  sun  shines  brightly,  the  soil  becomes 
warmer  but  not  so  rapidly  as  does  the  air,  chiefly  be- 
cause of  the  cooling  effect  of  the  evaporation  of  moist- 
ure from  the  surface  of  the  soil.  At  night  the  air 
first  cools,  then  the  heat  gained  by  the  soil  is  radiated 
into  the  air;  the»  evaporation  of  water  is  checked 
and  often  there  is  a  considerable  deposit  of  dew  on 
the  surface  and  an  increase  of  moisture  in  the  air 
held  in  the  pores  of  the  soil.  A  wet  soil  is  cooler 
than  the  same  soil  would  be  if  dry.  Usually  a  dark- 
colored  soil  is  warmer'  than  a  light- colored  one.  A 
soil  with  much  sand  or  gravel  will  become  warm  more 
slowly  and  will  retain  the  heat  longer  than  an  equal- 
ly dry  clay  or  humus  soil.  A  plant  surrounded  with 
stone  or  growing  near  a  gravel  walk  may  be  uninjured 
by  frost  when  those  growing  in  a  clay  soil  may  be 
seriously  injured.  A  soil  covered  with  a  sod  is  usual- 
ly cooler  during  the  day  but  does  hot  cool  so  rapidly 
at  night  as  does  one  bare  of  vegetation.  A  soil  which 
slopes  southward  will  be  warmer  than  one  with  a 
northward  inclination. 


48  THE  SOILS  ^ND  CROPS  OP  THE  FARM. 

€olor  of  !^oil. — The  color  of  a  soil  is  a  matter  of 
some  importance.  Not  only  is  a  dark-colored  soil 
warmer  than  a  light- colored  one,  but  the  dark  color 
is  generally  an  indication  of  fertility,  as  it  is  usually 
the  result  of  a  considerable  percentage  of  humus  in 
the  soil. 

The  Sab-soil. — The  character  of  the  sub- soil  has 
much  to  do  with  the  fertility  of  a  soil.  The  surface 
soil  may  have  the  best  possible  chemical  composition 
and  the  most  desirable  physical  characteristics,  but  if 
it  has  an  undesirable  sub-soil  at  the  depth  of  a  few 
inches,  its  ability  to  produce  crops  is  greatly  lessened. 
A  sub-soil  of  impervious  clay  or  hard-pan  is  very  ob- 
jectionable. A  soil  so  underlaid  cannot  have  a  large 
store  of  plant  food.  In  wet  weather  crops  will  suffer 
from  excess  of  moisture;  in  dry  weather  from  drouth. 
A  coarse  sand  or  gravel  sub -soil  near  the  surface  is 
also  objectionable.  The  water  passes  through  too 
readily  and  takes  with  it  much  plant  food. 


i 


1 


CHAPTER  IV. 

I^dPROVEMENT  OF  SOIL  BY  MANUBTNQ. 

The  growth  of  crops  does  not  necessarily  decrease 
the  fertility  of  soils,  if  the  product  is  not  removed  but 
is  allowed  to  decay  on  the  land.  In  most  cases  soils 
improve  so  long  as  they  are  not  cultivated  by  man. 
The  growth  of  plants  through  ages  has  been  a  chief 
cause  of  the  fertility  of  many  soils.  The  mineral 
matter  drawn  up  from  the  sub- soil  by  the  roots  of 
plants  remains  near  the  surface  when  the  plants  have 
decayed.  The  supply  of  carbon  and  nitrogen  in  the 
surface  soil  is  also  increased.  In  most  cases  the  phys- 
ical properties  of  soils  which  have  long  produced  nat- 
ural crops,  whether  of  trees,  grass  or  weeds,  are  such 
as  well  to  fit  the  soils  to  continue  producing  them 
in  abundance.  On  hill-sides  the  best  of  the  soil  may 
be  washed  away.  There  may  be  no  accumulation  of 
plant  food  on  coarse,  porous,  sandy  soils.  But  gen- 
erally either  prairie  or  forest  soils  are  fertile  in  a 
marked  degree,  when  first  brought  into  cultivation. 

Cropping  Beclnce)^  Fertility. — The  work  of  the 
farmer  tends  to  reduce  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  The 
crops  grown  are  removed  from  the  soil ;  or,  if  con- 
sumed by  animals,  the  animal  product  is  removed. 
In  either  case  plant  food  has  been  removed  from  the 
soil.  There  may  still  remain  an  abundant  supply.  At 
the  famous  Experiment  Station,  at  Rothamsted,  Eng- 
land, after  wheat  had  been  grown  on  the  same  ground 
for  about  fifty  years,  without  the  application  of  plant 
food,  the  crop  sometimes  nearly  equaled  the  average 

49 


50  THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

yield  of  wheat  ia  the  United  States.  On  some  fer- 
tile soils  in  this  country '  grain  has  been  profitably 
grown  for  more  than  a  half- century  without  the  di- 
rect application  of  plant  food.  On  many  soils,  how- 
ever, a  decrease  in  the  yield  of  crops  is  noticed  after 
they  have  been  cultivated  for  a  few  years,  unless  some 
return  of  plant  food  is  made. 

The  term  "exhaustion  of  soils,"  although  often  used, 
is  somewhat  misleading.  Continuous  cropping  may 
reduce  the  fertility  of  the  soil  so  that  it  may  not  ba 
profitable  to  cultivate  it  longer,  but  it  is  not  probable 
any  soil  could  be  exhausted,  that  is,  made  absolutely 
barren,  by  the  cultivation  and  removal  of  crops.  As 
has  been  said,  the  soil  is  not  a  finished  product.  Tha 
supply  of  plant  food  in  the  soil  is  not  like  grain  in  a 
bin,  continued  use  from  which  exhausts  the  supply. 
The  forces  of  nature  are  continually  manufacturing 
available  plant  food  in  the  soil.  More  or  less  of  thi? 
may  be  washed  away,  or  leach  into  the  sub-soil;  some 
of  it  passes  into  the  air;  man  may  remove  some  of  it 
in  crops.  But  all  soils,  properly  so-called,  contain 
plant  food  enough  to  support  something  of  a  crop. 

It  may  be  said  that  all  soils  have  a  "natural  fer- 
tility." Under  like  conditions  each  will  produce  a 
crop  not  greatly  varying  from  year  to  year.  As  a 
consequence  of  the  growth  and  decay  of  forest  trees 
or  prairie  grasses,  virgin  soils  have  accumulated 
a  large  supply  of  material  for  the  growth  of  plants, 
either  available  for  their  use  or  capable  of  being  made 
available.  This  may  be  called  "surplus  fertility,"  "ac- 
cumulated fertility"  or  "natural  manuring. "  Cropping 
without  return  of  plant  food  may  exhaust  this  surplus 
store  and  reduce  the  land  to  its  natural  fertility. 


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IMPROVEMENT  OF  SOIL  BY  MANURING.         51 

It  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  a  part  of  the  plant 
remains  on  the  soil  in  almost  all  cases.  The  roots 
and  stubble  of  grain  and  hay  crops  do  much  to  keep 
up  the  supply  of  humus  in  the  soil  and  keep  the  sur- 
face in  a  good  physical  condition. 

Classification  of  ]flaniires. — To  manure  land, 
according  to  the  original  meaning  of  the  word,  was  to 
cultivate  it  by  manual,  or  hand  labor.  Tillage  or  cul- 
tivation, properly  done,  does  increase  the  fertility  of 
the  soil.  Probably  crops  were  grown  for  centuries 
before  the  practice  of  applying  plant  food  to  enrich 
the  land  was  thought  of.  Now,  by  manuring  we  mean 
the  application  of  something  to  increase  the  fertility 
of  the  soil. 

Manures  may  aot  in  three  ways: 

1.  They  may  directly  add  plant  food  to  the  soil. 
Manure  is  sometimes  defined  as  plant  food  and  this  is 
the  most  common  thought  in  regard  to  it  and  its 
action. 

2.  They  may  hasten  decomposition  and  chemical 
changes  in  the  soil  by  which  available  plant  food  is 
prepared  from  material  which  has  been  lying  dor- 
mant. 

3.  They  may  improve  the  physical  condition  of  the 
soil.  The  application  of  pare  sand  to  a  clay  soil,  or 
pure  clay  to  a  sandy  soil,  does  not  add  plant  food, 
nor  directly  affect  chemical  action  in  the  soil,  but  by 
making  the  one  soil  more  open,  and  the  other  more 
compact,  the  fertility  of  each  may  be  largely  increased. 

Manures  may  be  divided  into  two  classes:  General 
and  special;  or  complete  and  partial.  They  are  also 
sometimes  divided  into  "mineral"  and  "organic" 
classes. 


52    THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

A  complete  manure  is  one  which  contains  all  the 
elements  of  plant  food.  Such  a  manure  will  increase 
the  growth  of  almost  any  crop  if  applied  to  almost 
any  kind  of  soil.  It  may  increase  the  growth  of  the 
stalk  and  leaves  at  the  expense  of  the  seed.  Stable 
or  barn-yard  manure  is  the  typical,  complete  or  gen- 
eral manure. 

A  special  manure  is  one  which  supplies  some  but 
not  all  the  elements  needed  by  plants,  or  which  is 
specially  prepared  for  certain  classes  of  crops  or  of 
soils.  This  class  is  known  as  artificial  manures, 
chemical  manures  or  commercial  fertilizers.  They  may 
be  by-products  of  manufacturing  establishments ;  they 
may  be  specially  compounded,  or  they  may  be  ob- 
tained from  the  great  stores  of  possible  plant  food  na- 
ture has  stored  up,  as  in  beds  of  marl,  of  gypsum,  or 
of  phosphatic  rocks. 

Stable  manure  ordinarily  acts  in  all  three  of  the 
ways  named.  Artificial  manures  usually  are  help- 
ful by  directly  adding  plant  food,  or  by  aiding  chemi- 
cal action  in  the  soil,  thus  hastening  the  preparation 
of  a  sufficient  supply  of  available  plant  food. 

It  has  already  been  stated  that  the  only  mineral 
elements  of  plant  food  probably  in  insufficient  sup- 
ply in  the  soil  are  phosphorus  and  potassium;  and 
that  nitrogen,  in  a  form  in  which  plants  can  make 
use  of  it,  is  the  only  gaseous  element  of  which  plants 
find  it  difficult  to  secure  a  sufficient  supply.  To  sup- 
ply some  one,  or  two,  or  all  three  of  these  scarce  or 
"precious" — because  scarce — elements,  is  the  purpose 
of  most  artificial  manures.  If  prepared  to  supply  one 
or  both  the  mineral  elements,  they  may  be  called  by 
their  names;  if  to  supply  all  the  mineral  elements 


lilPROVEHENT  OF  SOIL  BY  MANURING.         63 

needed  by  plants,  they  are  called  complete  mineral 
manures.  Wood  ashes  are  a  good  specimen  of  such 
a  manure.  If  the  supply  of  nitrogen  is  the  chief  pur- 
pose of  the  manure,  it  may  be  called  a  nitrogenous 
manure. 

The  commercial  value  of  artificial  manures  is  esti- 
mated from  the  quantity  of  phosphoric  acid,  potash 
and  nitrogen  they  contain.  A  sample  of  such  a  ma- 
nure may  be  said  to  contain  a  given  percentage  of 
potash,  of  "soluble  phosphoric  acid,"  or  of  "nitrogen, 
equivalent  to  ammonia."  The  number  of  pounds  of 
each  of  these  substances  contained  in  a  ton  can  then 
be  determined.  By  multiplying  this  by  the  prices  at 
which  they  can  be  bought  from  manufacturing  chem- 
ists, the  estimated  value  per  ton  of  the  manure  is 
obtained. 

This  expression  is  often  misunderstood  and  its  com- 
mon use  is  unfortunate. 

It  is  not  meant  that  if  a  farmer  uses  an  artificial 
manure  his  crops  will  be  increased  in  value  to  the 
amount  the  manure  is  said  to  be  worth.  This  may  or 
may  not  be  true.  On  soils  already  well  supplied  with 
plant  food  it  may  not  perceptibly  increase  the 
yield.  Thus  in  experiments  with  several  kinds  of  arti- 
ficial manures  at  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion in  Illinois,  od  the  fertile  prairie  soils  of  that 
State,  and  at  the  Station  in  Ohio,  on  equally  fertile 
river  bottom  soil,  little  or  no  increase  of  yield  was 
found  by  liberal  use  of  manures  which  produce  re- 
markable results  on  many  soils.  Even  if  the  crop  is 
increased  by  the  use  of  the  manure,  the  money  value 
of  the  increase  varies  greatly  in  different  parts  of  the 
country. 


54    THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

It  would  be  better,  in  speaking  of  manures  or  of  the 
manurial  value  of  foods,  to  say  that  the  valuable  plant 
food  elements  they  contain  would  cost  a  given  sum, 
rather  than  that  the  manure  is  worth  that  sum.  The 
actual  value  of  any  manure  for  a  given  piece  of  land 
or  for  a  particular  crop  on  that  land,  can  only  be  de- 
termined by  repeated  trials.  The  physical  effects  of 
stable  manure  and  some  other  manures  is  often  quite 
as  important  as  the  addition  of  plant  food  by  their  use. 

In  some  countries  where  the  soil  has  long  been  cul- 
tivated and  lands  are  high-priced,  the  purchase  of 
manures  by  farmers  is  the  rule  rather  than  the  excep- 
tion. Writing  especially  of  English  farming,  War- 
ington  says:  "The  farmer  is  generally  obliged  to 
purchase  manures  for  the  land  in  exchange  for  the 
crops  and  stock  sold  off  it."  This  practice  is  be- 
coming more  common  in  the  United  States  but  it  is 
s'ill  the  exception  rather  than  the  rule,  taking  the 
country  as  a  whole.  It  is  most  common  in  the  older 
settled  portions  of  the  country,  near  large  cities,  or 
where  attention  is  largely  given  to  special  crops. 
The  practice  of  purchasing  both  stable  manure  from 
cities  and  artificial  manures  will  doubtless  become 
increasingly  necessary  and  profitable 

In  some  cases,  but  more  commonly  among  market 
gardeners  than  among  general  farmers,  manures  are 
applied  in  such  quantity  as  considerably  to  increase 
the  fertility  of  the  land,  even  above  that  it  possessed 
when  first  cultivated. 

notable  Manure. — The  chief  reliance  of  most  farm- 
ers in  the  United  States,  in  the  way  of  direct  applica- 
tion of  manures,  is  stable  or  yard  manure.  The  value 
of  this  depends  on  its  composition,  condition  and  the 
method  of  application. 


ii 


IMPKOVEMENT  OF  SOIL  BY  MANURING.         55 

The  compositioa  will  depend  on  the  kind  and  quan- 
tity of  food  used,  the  kind  and  qaantity  of  litter  used, 
and,  to  some  extent,  on  the  kind  of  animals  fed.  In 
general,  the  more  nutritious  the  food,  the  more  valua- 
ble will  be  the  manure.  That  from  grain- fed  animals 
will  be  worth  more  than  that  from  animals  only  straw- 
fed.  A  large  quantity  of  litter  reduces  the  value  of 
the  manur  •;  an  iosufficient  supply  usually  makes  it 
less  valuable  because  of  probable  loss  of  the  liquid 
manure.  Manure  from  mature  animals,  especially 
those  being  fattened,  is  somewhat  more  vahiable  than 
that  fi'om  growing  animals  or  those  giving  milk,  be- 
cause the  latter  use  more  of  the  mineral  substances 
needed  by  plants  and  found  in  the  food. 

Manure  from  horses,  unless  there  is  a  too  large 
supply  of  straw  or  other  litter,  is  usually  more  valua- 
ble than  that  from  cdws,  because  the  horses  have  a 
largerproportion  of  grain  food,  and  there  is  less  water 
in  their  excrement.  Horse  manure  is  "heating;"  cow 
manure  is  cold.  The  manure  from  hogs  is  concen- 
trated and  very  valuable.  That  of  sheep  is  also  valua- 
ble. The  droppings  of  poultry  are  especially  valuable, 
largely  because  the  solid  and  liquid  excrement  is 
voided  together.  Often  it  is  better  to  mix  the  manure 
from  all  classes  of  farm  animals  than  to  use  that  of 
each  separately.  The  urine  is  often  fully  as  valuable 
as  the  dung  of  animals.  It  contains  more  nitrogen 
than  does  the  solid  excrement. 

Treatment  of  Manure. — Before  stable  manure 
can  act  as  plant  food  it  must  not  only  be  brought  into 
close  contact  with  the  roots  of  the  plants  but  must 
also  have  been  decomposed — well  rotted.  The  appli- 
cation of  straw  <*r  of  grain  to  land  may  mak^  the 


56    THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

physical  condition  better  or  worse,  but  plants  cannot 
feed  upon  them  until  they  have  rotted.  In  many  cases 
it  is  wise  to  immediately  apply  stable  manure,  but  it 
cannot  act  as  plant  food  until  fermentation  has  com- 
menced. 

Fermentation  begins  promptly.  Especially  horse 
manure  and  this  loosely  piled,  will  very  soon  become 
hot,  and  carbonic  acid  will  rapidly  pass  into  the 
air,  greatly  reducing  the  weight  and  bulk,  but  with- 
out much  reducing  the  direct  value  of  the  manure, 
unless  it  has  been  t^o  dry  and  "iire-fanged."  If 
kept  saturated  with  water,  fermentation  is  checked 
unduly.  Unless  litter  is  freely  used  there  is  a  consid- 
erable loss  of  aramonia  while  the  manure  is  fresh. 
The  use  of  gypsum  or  even  of  earth  will  check  this 
loss.  Keeping  the  manure  moderately  moist  and  well 
compacted  will  best  prevent  loss  of  nitrogen.  If 
necessary  to  keep  it  in  heaps  for  a  considerable  time, 
covering  the  heaps  with  a  layer  of  earth  will  still 
further  prevent  loss. 

In  many  cases  the  loss  from  water  is  much  more 
important  than  that  by  evaporation  or  vaporization. 
If  manure  i^  scattered  about  yards  or  piled  under  the 
eaves  of  stables,  more  than  half  its  value  may  be  lost 
in  a  few  months.  The  water  carries  away  much  of 
the  nitrogen  and  some  of  the  potash. 

Manure  kept  under  cover,  if  kept  sufficiently  moist, 
is  more  valuable  than  that  kept  in  the  open  air. 
Many  farmers,  with  present  arrangements,  cannot 
keep  the  manure  in  either  boxes  or  under  sheds.  If 
they  keep  it  in  reasonably  compact  piles,  not  exposed 
to  washing  from  eaves  of  buildings,  the  loss  will  not 
be  especially  serious. 


IMPKOVEMENT  OF  SOIL  BY  MANURING.         57 

In  very  many  cases,  the  best  practice  is  to  draw  the 
manure  direct  from  the  stables  and  spread  it  on  the 
land.  Top-dressing  grass  lands  is  a  practice  deserv- 
edly growing  in  favor.  Applying  the  manure  to  land 
which  is  to  be  plowed  later,  even  if  it  be  stubble- 
land,  is  often  good  practice.  Some  nitrogen  passes 
into  the  air,  but  there  is  a  great  saving  of  labor,  and 
the  loss  is  believed  to  be  less  than  was  formerly  sup- 
posed. The  laborious  methods  formerly  much  recom- 
mended, of  frequent  stirring  the  manure;  of  drawing 
it  to  the  field  and  there  putting  it  in  heaps,  etc.,  are 
less  in  favor  than  formerly  aid  not  adapted  to  the  con- 
ditions under  which  most  American  farmers  work. 

Comparatively  fresh  and  unfermented  manure  may 
more  advisably  be  applied  on  stubble-land  some  con- 
siderable time  before  it  is  to  be  plowed,  than  well- 
rotted  manure. 

Barn-yard  manure,  unless  very  thoroughly  rotted, 
is  bulky  and  heavy  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of 
plaot  food  it  contains.  Often  three-fourths  of  its 
weight  is  made  up  of  water.  But  it  will  probably 
.long  remain  the  most  gengral  reliance  of  farmers  in 
this  country,  and  in  most  cases  it  is,  especially  when 
produced  on  the  farm  where  it  is  to  be  applied,  the 
cheapest  and  best  manure  that  can  be  used.  Its  value 
in  keeping  the  soil  in  good  physical  condition  is  to  be 
considered  as  well  as  its  value  in  supplying  plant  food. 

liime  is  an  essential  element  of  all  soils  and  of  all 
plants.  Most  soils  in  the  United  States  have  suffi- 
ci  3nt  lime  to  supply  crops  with  all  they  need.  When 
used  as  manure  the  chief  value  of  lime,  as  a  rule,  is 
probably  in  its  indirect  effects  in  hastening  decompo- 
sition of  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil  and  in  correcting 


S8  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

acidity.  Over  much  of  the  United  States  lime  is 
rarely  used  and  its  cost,  in  many  regions,  will  prevent 
its  use.  In  some  parts  it  is  largely  used.  English 
writers  usually  attach  more  value  to  it  than  do  Ameri- 
can farmers. 

Gypsam,  or  sulphate  of  lime,  often  called  land 
plaster,  is  a  valuable  manure  on  some  soils,  especially 
on  clover.     On  many  soils  it  has  no  perceptible  effect. 

Aslies  may  be  called  a  complete  mineral  manure, 
but  are  especially  valued  for  the  potash  they  contain. 
Where  attainable  at  moderate  price  their  use  can  be 
safely  recommended.  Coal  ashes  are  not  considered 
of  much  value  as  manure. 

Bones  are  valued  especially  for  phosphoric  acid. 
They  also  contain  nitrogen.  The  principal  objection  to 
their  use  is  the  long  time  required  before  they  decom- 
pose in  the  soil.  The  finer  they  are  crashed  the  bet- 
ter in  this  respect.  Steamed  bones  have  less  nitrogen 
but  the  phosphoric  acid  is  more  readily  soluble. 

Superphosphate  of  Liiiue  may  be  formed  by 
treating  bones  with  sulphuric  acid  or  by  so  treating 
any  mineral  phosphate.  The  bone  superphosphate  is 
often  called  dissolved  bone.  On  many  soils  this  is 
one  of  the  best  manures.  On  others  it  has  little  ef- 
fect. Generally  speaking,  its  use  is  not  profitable  on 
naturally  fertile  land  still  in  good  condition. 

Nitrate  of  l^odinm  and  {Sulphate  of  Ammo- 
nium are  two  manures  valued  for  their  nitrogen. 
They  are  quick-acting  manures,  and  on  some  soils, 
usually  clayey  soils,  have  a  marked  effect  both  on 
grain  and  grass  crops.  It  is  advised  that  they  be 
used  generally  in  connection  with  superphosphate. 

Large  quantities  of   valuable   manures   are   made 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  SOIL  BY  MANURING.         59 

from  the  refuse  at  the  great  slaughter  houses  in  large 
cities.  The  blood,  bones,  pieces  of  flesh,  etc.,  may  all 
be  utilized.  The  manure  is  usually  offensive  in  smell 
but  is  valuable  on  many  soils. 

No  attempt  is  made  here  to  fully  discuss  the  value 
or  methods  of  applying  any  of  these  manm'es. 
Probably  the  best  possible  place  for  any  manure,  so 
far  as  fitting  it  to  fui*nish  the  largest  quantity  of  plant 
food  to  crops  is  concerned,  would  be  near  but  not  on 
the  surface  soil.  The  roots  could  then  readily  get 
access  to  the  manure;  loss  by  evaporation  would  be 
lessened  or  prevented  by  the  layer  of  soil  over  the 
manure;  loss  by  leaching  would  be  less  than  if  the 
manures  were  more  deeply  covered.  There  is  always 
some  loss  if  nitrogenous  manures  are  -applied  on  the 
surface.  There  is  almost  always  some  loss  if  the 
manures  are  covered  several  inches  in  the  soil.  In 
wet  weather,  on  porous  soils,  especially  if  the  manures 
are  applied  when  there  is  no  growing  crop  on  the  land, 
the  loss  by  leaching  may  be  great.  It  will  be  com- 
paratively little  in  dry  weather,  on  compact  soils,  or 
if  the  manure  is  applied  while  a  crop  is  growing,  or 
shortly  before  the  orop  is  sown. 

Stable  manure,  bones,  superphosphate  and  ashes 
are  slow  acting  manures.  They  may  continue  to  pro- 
duce good  effects  for  several  years.  Nitrate  of  sodium 
and  sulphate  of  ammonium  are  quick  acting  manures, 
rarely  producing  any  considerable  effect  except  during 
the  year  they  are  applied.  It  is  unwise  to  apply  these 
long  before  the  crop  can  make  use  of  them,  or  to  cover 
them  deep  in  the  earth. 


CHAPTEE  V. 

SOIL  IMPROVEMENT  BY  DRAINAGE  AND  IRRIGATION. 

Water  in  the  soil  is  essential  to  the  growth  of  crops. 
There  are  soils  which  are  barren  simply  from  lack  of 
sufficient  moisture.  An  excess  of  water  in  the  soil  is 
always  injurious,  sometimes  fatal  to  crops.  There  are 
plants  which  thrive  in  soils  saturated  with  water,  or 
even  covered  with  it,  but  these  are  not  the  common 
crops  of  the  farm.  Before  any  land  can  be  used  to 
the  best  advantage  it  must  be  able,  either  naturally 
or  by  artificial  means,  to  rid  itself  of  surplus  water. 

The  rain-fall  is  the  primary  source  of  the  water  in 
the  soil.  If  a  jfiece  of  land  is  too  wet,  it  is  because 
the  water  which  comes  to  it  cannot  readily  enough 
flow  off  or  through  it.  The  immediate  source  of  the 
water  may  be  either  the  direct  rain-fall  or  water  which 
flows  from  higher  lands.  This  last  may  flow  down 
over  the  surface,  or  come  up  from  below  in  springs; 
in  some  cases  it  may  ooze  out  from  hillsides  or  up 
from  the  sub -soil. 

Some  soils  have  good  natural  drainage,  even  when 
the  rain-fall  is  abundant.  The  natural  tendency  of 
water  is  to  flow  downward,  either  directly  into  the 
soil,  or  over  the  surface  if  this  be  inclined.  If  the 
surface  soil  admits  water  freely  and  the  sub-soil  is 
open  to  a  considerable  depth,  or  if  a  porous  soil  be 
underlaid  with  rocks  with  many  crevices  in  them,  even 
level  land  will  rid  itself  readily  of  surplus  water.  In 
such  soils  there  will  be  little  or  no  water,  even  after 
heavy  rains,  in  holes  dug  in  the  ground;  there  may 

60 


SOIL  IMPROVEMENT.  6i 

be  no  necessity  for  providing  aids  to  drainage  of 
cellars.  Sometimes  the  surplus  water  so  readily 
passes  down  to  a  great  depth  that  it  is  difficult  to  get 
water  from  wells.  There  are  vast  areas  of  farm  lands 
in  the  United  States  where,  in  a  few  hours  after  a  heavy 
rain- fall,  the  soil  is  in  good  condition  for  cultivation. 
There  is  no  need  that  man  should  undertake  to  do 
that  which  nature  has  done  well  for  him. 

Reasons  for  Drainage. — By  far  the  larger  part 
of  the  land  in  the  United  States  east  of  the  Missouri 
river  either  has  needed  or  still  needs  more  or  less  arti- 
ficial drainage.  Without  this  much  now  valuable 
land  would  have  been  comparatively  worthless. 
Probably  no  one  thing  has  done  more  to  increase  the 
value  of  the  farm  lands  of  several  of  the  central  west- 
ern states  than  has  the  extensive  work  recently  done 
in  them  in  the  way  of  land  drainage. 

Obviously  swampy  land,  or  that  with  ponds,  or  that 
on  which  water  stands  for  a  considerable  time  after 
heavy  rains,  is  not  naturally  well- drained  and  should 
have  work  done  to  it  in  this  direction.  Much  land 
which  does  not  show  the  signs  of  need  of  better  drain- 
age may  be  greatly  improved  by  either  surface  or  un- 
derground drainage. 

A  wet  soil  is  a  cold  soil.  If  the  surface  water  can 
not  flow  off  or  down  into  the  deep  sub-soil,  it  can  be 
removed  by  evaporation  only.  Evaporation  is  a  cooling 
process.  Much  heat  is  consumed  in  causing  the 
evaporation  of  stagnant  water  in  wet  soils.  Water  is, 
relatively,  a  poor  conductor  of  heat.  Warming  a 
vessel  of  water  by  applying  heat  at  the  top  is  a  slow 
process.  The  heat  from  the  sun's  rays  has  much  less 
effect  in  warming  a  wet  soil  than  it  has  on  a  dry  soil. 


62  THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

Stagnant  water  in  the  soil  checks  chemical  action  and 
the  preparation  of  plant  food.  It  prevents  the  access 
of  ail'. 

The  roots  of  most  plants  make  only  slow  and  feeble 
growth  in  such  a  soil.  The  yield  of  farm  crops  is 
much  reduced,  and  often  the  quality  of  the  produce 
is  made  poorer.  Land  which  is  too  wet  to  be  profit- 
ably cultivated  may  give  a  fair  return  if  kept  in  grass, 
but  the  quality  of  the  pasture  or  the  hay  is  usually 
not  so  good  as  that  grown  on  well-drained  land. 

The  working  season  is  often  shortened  if  the  land  is 
wet.  The  land  cannot  be  cultivated  so  early  in  spring. 
Heavy  rains  may  unfit  it  for  being  tilled  for  days  at  a 
time  when  the  crops  are  in  need  of  cultivation.  In 
many  cases  such  land  is  cultivated  when  too  wet,  to 
the  serious  injury  of  the  crop. 

On  fairly  level  land  the  presence  ;]of  a  few  small 
ponds  or  swampy  places  may  indicate  that  drainage 
of  the  whole  tract  is  needed;  for,  although  the  water 
stands  on  the  surface  over  only  a  small  per  cent  of 
the  area,  the  soil  may  be  saturated  with  water  to  with- 
in a  few  inches  of  the  surface  over  much  of  the  tract. 

Drainage  of  wet  land  tends  to  make  the  region  more 
healthful  for  both  man  and  the  domestic  animals. 

In  general,  it  may  be  said,  well -drained  land  can  be 
cultivated  at  less  cost,  with  more  ease,  and  will  give 
larger  yields  of  a  larger  variety  of  crops,  with  less 
danger  of  loss  during  bad  weather  or  from  frosts,  and 
that  it  is  often  more  healthful  and  always  more  at- 
tractive than  undrained,  wet  land. 

ISnrface  and  Underground  Drainage. — The 
good  results  from  improving  the  surface  drainage  of 
wet  land,  by  straightening  and  clearing  the  natural 


SOIL  IMPROVEMENT  BY  DRAINAGE.  63 

water  courses,  opening  ditches,  running  furrows 
through  the  fields,  etc,  have  long  been  known  and 
such  work  has  generally  been  done  to  some  extent  in 
all  civilized  countries.  Sometimes  improving  the  sur- 
face drainage  may  be  all  that  is  necessary  or  desirable. 
It  is  better,  however,  that  the  surplus  water,  unless  in 
great  excess,  should  pass  down  through  the  soil  rather 
than  over  it. 

Water  flowing  over  the  surface  washes  away  more 
or  less  of  the  best  of  the  soil  and  of  manures  which 
have  been  applied.  It  may  seriously  wash  the  surface. 
It  is  also  true  that  while  stagnant  water  in  the  soil  is 
almost  always  injurious,  moving  water,  in  reasonable 
quantity,  is  beneficial.  While  the  stagnant  water 
makes  the  soil  cold,  the  rains  in  spring  are  often 
warmer  than  the  soil  and  increase  its  temperature  by 
passing  down  into  it.  The  rain  carries  with  it  am- 
monia and  carbonic  acid  from  the  air.  It  aids  in  the 
preparation  of  plant  food.  The  air  will  freely  follow 
the  water  as  it  could  not  if  the  water  remained  saturat- 
ing the  soil.  When  the  surface  has  become  dryer 
than  the  deeper  soil  water  will  be  carried  up  again  by 
capillary  action,  which  cannot  go  on  in  a  soil  full  of 
water. 

Underground  or  covered  draios  have  advantages 
over  open  ditches.  They  do  not  lessen  the  area  to  be 
cultivated  nor  interfere  with  the  passage  of  teams. 
They  do  not  invite  the  growth  of  weeds.  Oftentimes 
they  are  more  effective  than  open  ditches  of  equal 
depth. 

Material  for  ]>raiiis. — Many  classes  of  material 
have  been  used  in  making  underground  drains,  but 
nothing  is  so  good  as  round  tile  made  of  clay,  usually 


G4     THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

in  pieces  about  one  foot  long.  Where  stones  are  abun- 
dant and  it  is  desired  to  get  rid  of  them,  they  may  be 
used,  sometimes  giving  good  satisfaction.  Boards, 
poles,  brush;  even  straw  may  be  worth  using  under 
exceptional  circumstances.  "Mole  drains,"  made  by 
drawing  a  conical  shaped  piece  of  iron  or  wood 
through  the  soil  at  the  desired  depth,  have  done  good 
work  for  years  in  fairly  retentive  soils.  In  most  parts 
of  this  country,  however,  there  is  little  reason  for 
using  anything  else  than  the  ordinary  drain  tile,  or 
"pipes,"  as  they  are  called  in  England.  The  use  of 
drainage  tile  was  not  common  until  about  fifty  years 
ago,  and  comparatively  few  had  been  used  in  this 
country  until  after  the  civil  war.  Within  the  last  few 
years  there  have  been  more  than  eight  hundred  facto- 
ries for  their  manufacture  at  work  in  Illinois.  For- 
merly they  were  made  in  the  shape  of  a  horseshoe,  at 
first  without,  afterward  with  a  "sole."  Now  round 
tiles  are  almost  universally  used.  It  has  been  found 
that  good  tile  can  be  made  from  any  clay  suited  for 
brick -making. 

The  most  desirable  qualities  in  drain  tile  are  that 
they  shall  be  straight,  smooth  on  the  inside,  with  the 
ends  squarely  cut  off,  free  from  cracks  and  fairly  hard 
burned.  As  the  water  enters  the  tile  almost  entirely 
at  the  joints  in  any  case,  the  porosity  of  the  tile  is 
a  matter  of  little  importance . 

Hethod  of  Action  of  Tile  Drains. — Lands  are 
wet  because  the  water  is  held  on  or  near  the  surface 
of  a  soil  so  compact  it  cannot  freely  enter  it;  or  be- 
cause the  soil  is  underlaid  with  rock,  clay,  hard-pan, 
or  other  substance  nearly  impervious  to  water.  The 
land  may  be  wet  on  hillsides  because  the  impervious 


\ 


I 


SOIL  IMPROVEMENT  BY  DRAINAGE.  65 

sub- soil  comes  near  the  surface  and  causes  a  discharge 
of  the  water  which  has  passed  into  the  soil  on  the 
higher  land.  In  time  of  heavy  rains  land,  such  as 
has  been  described,  becomes  full  of  water,  and  be- 
comes dry  slowly  by  the  aid  of  evaporation  from  the 
surface  and  the  slow  passage  of  water  through  the  re- 
tentive soil  and  sub-soil. 

If  an  open  ditch  be  cut  in  such  a  soil,  with  the 
bottom  having  a  uniform  slope  to  a  stream  or  other 
free  outlet,  it  is  evident  it  will  rapidly  carry  off  the 
water  until  the  line  of  saturated  soil,  near  the  ditch, 
is  on  a  level  with  its  bottom.  As  the  water  cannot 
move  freely  through  the  soil  the  line  of  satura- 
tion gradually  rises  on  either  side,  until  at  a  dis- 
tance depending  on  the  depth  of  the  ditch  and  the 
character  of  the  soil,  no  appreciable  effect  is  produced 
by  the  ditch. 

If  the  ditch  were  cut  in  very  retentive  soil,  it  could 
carry  off  the  water  very  slowly.  If  the  surface  soil  be 
open,  but  the  ditch  be  cut  into  the  impervious  sub- 
soil, it  is  evident  the  water  can  only  enter  it  by  flow- 
ing along  the  top  of  the  compact  sub -soil  until  the 
'ditch  is  reached.  If  the  surface  slope  up  on  either 
side  of  the  ditch,  it  will  affect  the  soil  to  a  grerter 
distance  than  if  the  surface  be  level. 

If  a  line  of  tile  be  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  ditch, 
with  their  ends  so  close  together  that  dirt  cannot  be 
washed  in,  and  care  is  taken  to  see  that  ther^  is  a  uni- 
form fall  toward  a  good  outlet,  and  the  ditch  be  filled 
up,  the  action  will  be  much  the  same  as  in  the  case  of 
the  open  ditch. 

The  efficiency  of  tile  drains  depends  on  many  things, 
as  the  character  of  the  rain-fall,  the  retentiveness  of 


66     THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

the  soil,  the  size  of  the  tile,  the  distance  apart  and  the 
depth  of  the  drains,  as  well  as  on  the  rate  of  fall,  the 
skill  with  which  the  work  is  done  and  the  character  of 
the  outlet. 

The  total  rain- fall  for  a  year  is  of  less  consequence 
than  the  quantity  which  may  fall  in  twelve  or  twenty- 
four  hours.  It  is  useless  to  undertake  to  carry  off  at 
once  the  water  which  may  fall  in  extraordinary  cases. 
Comparatively  little  harm  is  done  by  standing  water  if 
it  be  removed  in  a  few  hours.  The  percentage  of  water 
which  will  pass  through  the  soil  depends  not  only  on 
the  amount  which  falls  but  upon  the  character  of  the 
soil. 

ISize  of  Tile. — Smaller  tile  are  used  in  England 
than  in  this  country.  Those  one  inch  in  diameter 
were  formerly  used,  and  two-inch  tile  are  not  un- 
common. In  many  parts  of  this  country  tile  less  than 
three  inches  in  diameter  are  rarely  used.  A  two-inch 
tile  is  abundantly  large  for  use  in  many  places,  but 
there  is  danger  of  mistakes  in  deciding  this  point  and 
errors  in  laying  small  tile  are  more  serious  in  their 
effects  than  with  large  tile;  hence  it  is  safer  to  use 
larger  sizes.  The  carrying  capacity  of  tile  varies  with 
the  square  of  their  diameter.  Thus  a  six-inch  tile 
will  carry  four  times  as  much  as  a  three-inch  tile;  in 
fact  somewhat  more,  because  the  resistance  from  fric- 
tion against  the  sides  is  relatively  less  in  the  larger 
tile.  It  is  a  mistake  to  lay  a  long  line  of  tile  all  of 
the  same  size.  The  quantity  of  water  to  be  carried 
increases  as  the  line  extends,  and  the  rate  of  fall  is 
rarely  great  enough  to  allow  an  increase  in  velocity. 

For  ordinary  farm  drainage,  tile  varying  from  three 
to  six  inches  in  diameter  are  most  commonly  used  in 


SOIL  IMPROVEMENT  BY  DRAINAGE.  67 

t-his  country,  with  larger  sizes  for  mains  in  most  cases. 
In  the  central  Western  States  tile  twelve,  fourteen  or 
sixteen  inches  in  diameter  are  not  uncommon  in  main 
drains  on  large  farms,  or  where  several  farmers  have 
united  in  a  system  of  drainage. 

Depth  and  Distance  Apart  of  Drains — There 
is  a  close  relation  between  these  two  points.  The 
deeper  the  tile  is  laid,  ordinarily,  the  greater  may  be 
the  distance  between  the  drains.  Shallow  drains 
cannot  affect  the  land  to  any  considerable  distance, 
and  will  not  lower  the  line  of  saturation  sufficiently 
to  give  the  best  results.  The  tile  may  be  injured  by 
frost.  Little  good  comes  from  cutting  deep  drains  in 
very  retentive  soils.  Frequent,  shallow  drains  are 
best  for  such.  In  open,  porous  soils,  such  as  those  of 
the  prairie  States,  drains  laid  three  feet  deep  will  ap- 
preciably affect  the  soil  for  100  feet  or  more  on  either 
side.  In  some  very  compact  English  clay  soil  drains 
are  laid  not  more  than  15  feet  apart. 

Usually  a  deep  laid  drain  will  begin  to  flow  sooner 
when  rain  comes,  after  a  period  of  drouth,  will  con- 
tinue to  flow  longer,  and  will  carry  off  somewhat  more 
water  in  a  given  time  than  a  shallow  drain.  The 
reason  these  statements  are  true  will  be  apparent  if 
the  results  of  pouring  water  into  a  barrel  filled  with 
earth,  and  with  holes  bored  into  its  sides  at  different 
depths,  be  thought  of. 

The  cost  of  digging  ditches  rapidly  increases  with 
their  depth.  There  is  no  advantage,  and  some  disad- 
vantages, from  lowering  the  line  of  saturated  soil  far 
below  the  surface.  In  practice  three  feet  is  a  desir- 
able depth  for  tile  di-ains  in  ordinary  soils.  The 
nature  of  the  soil  and  other  conditions  vary  so   much 


68    THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OP  THE  FARM. 

that  it  is  not  wise  to  attempt  to  specify  the  best  dis- 
tance apart.  In  prairie  soils,  100  feet  apart  is  usual- 
ly a  safe  distance,  even  when  the  land  is  quite  wet. 

Cost  of  Tile  Drainage.— What  is  known  as 
"thorough  drainage"  is  rare  in  this  country.  The 
cost  would  be  so  great  that  the  practice  is  not  advis- 
able on  lands  of  moderate  price.  In  many  cases  the 
cost  would  be  greater  than  the  price  of  lands  equally 
desirable  and  not  needing  much  drainage.  Drainage 
is  a  permanent  improvement,  and  if  a  fair  interest 
on  the  amount  invested  in  it  be  returned  by  the  in- 
creased crops,  the  outlay  is  advisable.  With  drains 
three  feet  deep  and  with  tile  obtainable  near  the 
farm,  using  the  sizes  most  common,  the  total  cost  of  the 
work  may  vary  from  fifty  to  seventy-five  cents  per 
rod. 

Bate  of  Fall. -A  line  of  tile  laid  on  an  exact 
level  in  wet  land  would  carry  off  much  water,  if  one 
end  were  open.  A  slight  fall  would  greatly  increase 
the  carrying  capacity,  of  the  tile.  It  is  difficult  to 
have  tile  laid  with  accuracy;  hence  more  fall  is  de- 
sirable. A  fall  of  one  foot  in  one  hundred  of  length 
is  abundance.  Good  work  is  done  by  many  ditches 
where  the  fall  is  not  one-tenth  this  rate.  On  level 
land  a  safe  rule  is  to  get  all  the  fall  practicable,  but 
not  to  leave  the  work  undone  because  the  fall  is  slight. 
In  case  of  very  slight  fall  the  rate  can  be  increased  by 
making  the  ditch  shallower  at  the  upper  end. 

Planning  and  Making  the  Drains.— It  is 
wise  to  lay  out  the  plan  for  a  system  of  drains  for  the 
farm;  but  the  work  may  commence  where  it  is  most 
needed.  The  advice  and  work  of  a  drainage  engineer 
is  helpful  but  not  essential.  A  good  outlet  is  essential 


SOIL  IMPROVEMENT  BY  DRAINAGE.  69 

No  drain  can  do  good  work  without  a  free  outlet.  The 
main  drains  should  follow  the  lowest  land,  the  natural 
water  courses,  unless  this  line  be  very  crooked.  Side 
drains  should,  usually,  run  up  and  down  the  slope. 
Where  the  surplus  water  mainly  comes  from  higher 
land,  it  is  often  possible  to  cut  it  off  by  a  line  of  tile  run- 
ning across  the  slope.  The  tile  for  the  main  drains  should 
be  selected  with  reference  to  the  water  they  may  be 
ultimately  required  to  carry,  and  not  simply  with 
reference  to  present  needs.  Digging  the  ditch  and 
laying  the  tile  should  commence  at  the  outlet.  A 
leveling  instrument  is  advisable,  but  good  results  can 
be  obtained  by  noticing  the  flow  of  water  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  ditch.  The  tile  should  be  placed  as  close  to- 
gether as  possible.  The  side  drains  should  enter  the 
main  at  an  acute  angle,  and  a  little  above  the  bottom. 

The  plow  may  often  be  profitably  used  for  opening 
the  ditch.  A  common  mistake  in  digging  is  in  mak- 
ing the  ditch  wider  than  is  necessary.  Another  is  in 
determining  the  depth  by  measuring  from  the  sur- 
face. Many  machines  for  digging  ditches  for  the  tile 
drains  have  been  invented.  Some  do  good  work  un- 
der favorable  conditions.  The  great  mass  of  the  work 
is  still  done  by  hand  labor. 

In  exceptional  localities  ponds  and  swamps  may  be 
drained  or  good  outlets  secured  for  tile  drains  by 
openings  through  the  compact  subsoil  into  beds  of 
sand  or  other  porous  subsoil  underlying  the  impervi- 
ous strata. 

Where  there  are  large  areas  of  level,  wet  lands,  large 
open  ditches  often  have  to  be  made  as  outlets  for  the 
farm  systems  of  tile  drains.  In  some  States  great 
canals  many  miles  in  length  and  often  thirty  feet 
wide  have  been  dug  for  this  purpose. 


70  THE  SOILS  AND  CEOPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

liosses  from  Drainage. — The  great  benefits 
from  underground  drainage  are  accompanied  with 
some  loss.  There  is,  sometimes,  a  considerable  loss 
of  nitrogen  in  the  drainage  water.  It  is  possible  that, 
if  the  water  level  is  reduced  to  the  depth  of  several 
feet,  the  surface  soil  may  be  dryer  during  drouth, 
as  the  soil  cannot  draw  water  up  by  capillary  power 
from  a  great  depth.  Usually,  however,  a  well  drained 
soil  has  rather  more  than  less  mcjisture  in  it  during  dry 
weather,  than  an  undrained  one.  It  is  possible  that 
drainage  of  large  areas  may  have  some  effect  on  the 
climate,  possibly  affecting  slightly  the  rainfall. 
Wherever  done  with  ordinary  discretion,  it  may  be 
safely  affirmed  that  tile  drainage  will  do  much  more 
good  than  harm. 

Irrigation. — Where  the  rainfall  is  insufficient  or 
comes  at  long  intervals  irrigation  is  necessary  for 
profitable  farming.  The  practice  is  very  ancient. 
Perhaps  it  was  first  introduced  along  the  valley  of  the 
Nile.  In  England  the  practice  is  most  common  in  the 
case  of  low-lying  grass  lands,  often  called  "water 
meadows,"  on  which  water  is  kept  for  a  considerable 
time  in  winter.  In  this  country  irrigation  is  practiced 
with  remarkable  success  in  what  is  termed  the  "arid 
region,"  and  on  the  plains  of  California.  The  water 
from  rivers  or  large  streams  is  carried  along  hillsides 
by  canals  and  ditches  and  from  these  distributed  over 
the  land,  sometimes  by  means  of  elaborate  systems  of 
shallow  ditches.  In  some  parts  of  the  country  great 
supplies  of  water  are  obtained  from  artesian  wells. 
As  yet,  however,  the  regions  in  which  irrigation  is 
practiced,  while  actually  large,  are  relatively  but  a 
very  small  fraction  of  the  country,  and  the  methods 


SOIL  IMPROVEMENT  BY  DRAINAGE,  71 

adopted  vary  greatly  in  different  parts   of  the  coun- 
tiy. 

The  fact  that  the  yield  of  crops  where  the  land  is 
irrigated  are  often  surprisingly  large,  coupled  with  the 
fact  that  the  rainfall  is  uncertain  in  many  localities, 
makes  the  problem  of  irrigation  one  of  importance  to 
farmers  in  many  parts  of  the  country.  For  excep- 
tional crops  profitable  use  of  irrigation  by  water 
pumped  from  wells  by  means  of  windmills  or  steam 
engines  has  been  secured.  The  utilization  of  streams 
on  hillsides  or  other  high-lying  land  may  already  be 
profitably  attempted  in  some  parts  of  the  country. 
However,  irrigation  is  a  problem  of  the  future  rather 
than  the  present  so  far  as  most  farmers  in  this  coun- 
try are  concerned. 


CHAPTER   VI. 

TILLAGE. 

The  farmer  is  called  a  tiller  of  the  soil.  Agricul- 
ture is  defined  as  the  culture  of  the  field.  The  soil  is 
no  more  essential  to  crop  production  than  is  the  air, 
water,  heat  or  light.  But  the  farmer  can  directly  af- 
fect the  condition  of  the  soil,  making  it  more  suitable 
for  crop  production,  and,  through  it,  can  make  the  sup- 
plies of  air,  heat  and  water  more  helpful. 

The  abundant  natural  vegetation  in  forest  and  on 
prairie  shows  that  tillage  is  not  essential  to  the  growth 
of  many  plants.  But  nature  is  very  prodigal  in  seed- 
ing. Often  not  one  seed  in  a  thousand  of  those  which 
fall  to  the  ground  produces  a  plant.  Most  crops  cul- 
tivated by  farmers  would  scarcely  maintain  themselves 
without  the  aid  of  man. 

Objects  of  Tillage, — The  chief  objects  of  tillage 
operations  are: 

1.  To  prepare  a  suitable  seed  bed  and  properly 
cover  the  seed  sown. 

2 .  To  keep  the  soil  in  good  condition  during  the 
growth  of  the  crop. 

3.  "Tillage  is  manure." 

The  first  object  is  accomplished  by  stirring,  pul- 
verizing, often  inverting  the  surface  soil,  and  by  cov- 
ering grass,  weeds,  stubble  or  manure  growing  or  de- 
posited on  the  surface. 

The  second  object  is  generally  accomplished  by 
keeping  the  surface  loose  and  preventing  the  growth 


'-  iof  weeds, 


72 


-•o;::r.t:trstr:^f?:-r:s^^^^-" 


I    t   f    I    I   I    I    I    , 


I    I    r    I    I    r 


I    I    I 


f    I    I    I    I 


rt  5   3  f^ 


'    ^   C    **    »-  ;3   ^  ci 


i 


■I 

n 


TILLAGE.  73 

That  proper  tillage  or  cultivation  of  the  soil  often 
increases  its  productive  power  is  undoubtedly  true. 
The  ability  of  a  soil  to  produce  crops  is  often  as  di- 
rectly increased  by  tillage  as  by  the  application  of 
manures.  The  saying  that  "tillage  is  manui'e"  as  un- 
derstood by  Jethro  Tull  and  by  an  occasional  writer 
of  modern  times — that  is,  that  good  tillage  makes  ma- 
nuring unnecessary — may  lead  to  bad  practice.  Good 
tillage,  liberal  manuring,  and  good  drainage  combined 
are  much  more  likely  to  continue  to  give  satisfactory 
crops  than  if  one  places  chief  reliance  on  either  op- 
eration. 

Some  of  the  reasons  why  cultivation  makes  soils 
more  productive  are  easily  seen.  Stirring  and  pul- 
verizing a  hard,  compact  soil  enables  the  roots  of 
plants  to  penetrate  it  more  easily  and  greatly  increases 
the  quantity  of  plant  food  reached  by  the  roots.  These 
operations  also  permit  air  and  water  to  enter  the  soil 
more  freely  and  thus  increase  the  supply  of  available 
plant  food.  Autumn  cultivation  exposes  the  loosened 
surface  to  the  action  of  the  frost.  Prof.  Wrightson 
says:  "No  implement  is  so  effective  in  pulverizing 
the  ground  as  frost." 

Sometimes  tillage  greaftly  improves  very  open,  coarse 
textured  soils  by  making  them  more  compact,  increas- 
ing the  number  and  reducing  the  size  of  the  pores. 
This  increases  the  capillary  power  of  the  soil. 

Surface  cultivation,  keeping  the  surface  soil  loose 
and  dry,  causes  it  to  act  as  a  mulch,  retarding  evapora- 
tion. 

The  destruction  of  weeds  prevents  their  robbing  the 
crop  of  food  and  water. 

Plowing. — The  plow  is  the  typical  farm  imple- 


74    THE  SOILS  AND  CEOPS  OF  THE  FAEM. 

ment.  The  story  of  its  development  forms  one  of  the 
most  iaterestiag  pages  in  the  history  of  agriculture. 
Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  introduce  substi- 
tutes for  it,  and  these  have  been  largely  successful  so 
far  as  cultivation  of  the  soil  while  crops  are  growing 
is  concerned;  but  the  plow  is  still  the  chief  reliance  in 
preparing  soils  for  crops. 

The  modern  plow  cuts,  lifts,  and  turns  a  furrow. 
Sometimes  it  does  a  good  deal  in  the  way  of 
breaking  up  and  pulverizing  the  furrow  slice.  There 
is  much  difference  as  regards  this  last  point  be- 
tween the  common  practice  in  the  United  States 
and  in  England.  American  plows,  especially  those 
designed  for  use"  in  loose  soils,  take  a  wide  and 
comparatively  shallow  furrow,  crumbling  the  earth 
in  stubble  land,  sometimes  leaving  it  in  fair  con- 
dition for  seeding  without  further  tillage.  Eng- 
lish plows,  as  a  rule,  take  a  narrower  and  deeper 
fuiTow  and  the  effort  is  made,  especially  in  autumn 
plowing,  to  expose  as  much  surface  to  the  air  as  pos- 
sible, by  laying  the  furrow  slice  at  an  angle  of  about 
forty- five  degrees.  Nine  inches  is  a  common  width  of 
furrow  slice  in  England;  twelve,  fourteen  or  sixteen 
inches,  the  latter  for  three-horse  plows,  are  common  in 
the  United  States,  especially  in  prairie  soils.  An  acre 
to  an  acre  and  a  quarter  is  counted  a  good  day's  work 
in  plowing  in  England.  In  this  country,  twice  as 
much  is  often  done  with  a  pair  of  horses. 

Plows  have  been  much  improved  in  recent  years. 
The  draft  has  been  reduced  and  the  quality  of  work 
done  improved.  But  the  best  plows  are  not  perfect 
working  implements.  Plowing  is  relatively  slow  and 
costly  work.     A  man  and  team  will  go  over  a  greater 


I 


TILLAGE.  -  75 

area  in  a  day  in  almost  any  other  tillage  operation 
than  in  plowing.  There  is  a  tendency  to  compact  the 
subsoil  unduly  by  the  trampling  of  the  horses  and  the 
pressure  of  the  plow.  At  the  best,  the  plow  imperfectly 
pulverizes  the  soil.  The  spading  principle  seems  bet- 
ter, but  this  has  not  been  successfully  applied  in  gen- 
eral practice,  although  some  ingenious  machines  for 
the  purpose  have  been  introduced. 

Depth  of  Plowing. — Plow  deep  has  often  been 
given  as  sound  advice  for  all  farmers.  Sometimes  it 
is  very  bad  advice.  In  some  soils  deep  plowing  is 
worse  than  shallow  plowing;  in  many  more  it  is  no 
better  in  its  results,  while  it  always  costs  more. 

The  statement  that  the  deeper  the  good  soil  into 
which  roots  may  descend  for  food  the  better  for  the 
crops,  is  a  sound  one.  Where  the  soil  is  of  like  qual- 
ity to  a  considerable  depth,  and  is  not  naturally  suffi- 
ciently loose,  deep  plowing  will  generally  be  advisable. 
Sometimes  excellent  results  come  from  mixing  a  por- 
tion of  the  subsoil  with  the  surface  soil,  by  deep  plowing. 
Plant  food  which  has  been  carried  down  several  inches 
in  the  soil  will  be  brought  to  the  surface.  Exposing 
a  portion  of  the  deeper  soil  to  the  action  of  the  frost 
during  winter  often  is  a  great  help  to  productiveness. 

Deep  plowing  is  rarely  advisable  on  wet,  undrained 
soils.  Often  this  simply  increases  the  depth  to 
which  the  soil  becomes  saturated  with  water,  which 
must  escape  by  evaporation.  In  shallow  soils,  with  a 
poor  subsoil,  any  marked  increase  in  depth  of  plow- 
ing at  one  operation  will  almost  certainly  do  harm. 
Gradually  deepening  the  soil  by  increasing  the  depth 
of  plowing  about  an  inch  each  year,  may  be  helpful 
in  such  soils. 


76     THE  SOILS  AND  CEOPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

Much  of  the  fertile  prairie  soils  of  the  central  west 
and  some  alluvial  soils  in  other  parts  of  the  country 
often  show  no  increase  of  yield  from  deep  plowing. 
Deep  plowing  is  less  common  on  the  black  prairie  soil 
of  Central  Illinois,  for  instance^  than  it  formerly  was. 
These  soils  are  so  open  in  texture  that  neither  roots, 
air  nor  water  find  difficulty  in  descending  to  a  consider- 
able depth.  Repeated  experiments  have  shown  that 
good  crops  may  be  grown  on  such  soils  without  plow- 
ing; in  fact  without  other  preparation  than  co\^ring 
the  seed,  it  being  understood  that  the  surface  mu^t  be 
freed  from  rubbish  in  some  way.  This  practice  is  not 
advised,  but  it  illustrates  the  fact  that  the  physical 
condition  of  some  soils  may  be  as  good  without  tillage 
as  that  of  others  after  much  work  has  been  done  by 
the  farmer.  The  latter  may  produce  as  large  crops 
as  the  former,  but  it  is  at  the  cost  of  more  labor. 

There  is  a  disposition  to  over-estimate  the  depth  of 
plowing.  For  many  soils  six  inches  may  be  called 
deep;  comparatively  few  soils  need  frequent  plowing 
deeper  than  eight  inches.  Fall  plowing  may  usually 
be  deeper  than  is  advisable  when  the  work  is  done 
in  the  spring. 

ISabsoil  and  Trench  Plowing, — Subsoil  plow- 
ing is  loosening  the  subsoil  without  bringing  it  to  the 
surface.  In  trench  plowing  the  loosened  subsoil  is 
laid  on  the  surface.  Neither  of  these  operations  is 
commonly  practiced  by  American  farmers.  Many 
thousands  of  acres  are  annually  so  treated,  but  the  to- 
tal is  but  a  small  percentage  of  the  cultivated  area. 
Subsoiling  is  probably  advisable  on  a  larger  variety 
of  soils  in  this  country  than  is  trench  plowing.  On 
undrained  soils  it  often  is  worse  than  useless,   unless 


TILLAGE.  77 

in  rare  cases,  where  there  is  a  thin  layer  of  compact 
soil  above  a  porous  soil.  In  heavy  clay  soils  the 
effects  are  not  permanent.  In  deep,  loose  soils  the 
practice  may  do  some  good  but  not  always  enough  to 
repay  the  extra  cost. 

Subsoiling  may  be  done  either  by  a  separate  plow 
or  an  attachment  to  the  ordinary  plow. 

A  double  plow  with  a  small  share  and  mold  board 
in  front  which  cuts  and  turns  over  a  shallow  furrow, 
followed  by  a  larger  plow  which  covers  this  furrow 
with  a  deeper  furrow,  gives  good  satisfaction  to  many 
farmers,  especially  in  plowing  sod  land. 

Time  for  Plowing. — There  are  some  obvious 
advantages  in  fall  plowing  lands  designed  for  spring 
sown  crops.  The  pressure  of  work  in  the  spring  is 
lessened.  The  crops  can  often  be  put  in  more 
promptly.  Exposing  the  upturned  surface  to  the 
fi'eezing  and  thawing,  to  the  snow  and  rain  of  winter, 
often  helps  much.  Some  insects  may  be  destroyed  by 
the  process.  With  some  soils  replowing  in  spring 
may  be  advisable,  but  this  is  not  the  rule.  For  fall 
sown  grains,  as  wheat  and  rye,  it  is  generally  thought 
best  to  plow  as  long  before  time  for  seeding  as  is  con- 
veniently practicable;  these  crops  often  doing  better 
when  the  seed  bed,  while  well  pulverized,  is  well  com- 
pacted. On  the  other  hand  there  are  advantages,  in 
many  cases,  when  plowing  ground  in  the  spring,  from 
planting  or  sowing  the  crop  very  promptly  after  the 
plowing  is  done.  This  is  especially  true  if  there  is 
little  moisture  in  the  soil.  If  a  crop  of  clover  or  other 
green  manuring  crop  is  to  be  turned  under,  the  plow- 
ing will  naturally  be  delayed  as  long  as  possible  to 
allow  greater  growth  to  the  manure  crop. 


78  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  :^ARM. 

Summer  fallowing,  or  plowing  land  in  the  spring 
or  fall  and  allowing  it  to  lie  during  the  summer, 
either  with  or  without  further  cultivation,  is  only  ex- 
ceptionally practiced  in  this  country,  and  is  not  gener- 
ally growing  in  favor.  Where  soils  are  badly  infested 
with  weeds  difficult  to  eradicate,  or  are  especially  com- 
pact and  tenacious,  or  have  only  a  small  supply  of 
available  plant  food,  this  practice  may  be  advisable. 
The  condition  of  the  soil  may  be  improved;  mineral 
plant  food  may  accumulate ;  nitrogen  will  be  absorbed 
from  the  air  and  brought  to  the  soil  by  rains,  or  by 
the  decay  of  vegetable  matter.  But,  if  the  soil  be 
open  textured,  and  if  there  be  much  rain,  more  nitro- 
gen will  be  lost  than  is  gained.  There  is  the  additional 
great  practical  objection  that  the  land  makes  no  re- 
turn in  crop  during  the  year. 

Few  soils  can  be  plowed  when  wet  without  injury. 
Some  sandy  soils  are  little  affected,  but  clay  soils  are 
much  injured  by  this  practice.  It  is  often  almost 
impossible  to  get  a  compact  clay  soil  in  good  condition 
after  it  has  been  plowed,  or  even  much  trampled  by 
live-stock  when  wet,  until  it  has  been  exposed  to  the 
actiunof  frost. 

Harrowing. — Harrowing  with  any  form  of  toothed 
harrows  affects  the  soil  only  to  a  moderate  depth. 
The  operation  is  cheaply  done.  The  same  force 
of  men  and  teams  may  go  over  ten  times  as  much 
ground  when  harrowing  as  when  plowing.  It  is  a 
good  method  of  leveling  the  surface,  helping  pulverize 
the  clods,  covering  seeds,  and  of  destroying  weeds. 
The  best  of  the  toothed  harrows,  however,  only  slowly 
and  imperfectly  pulverize  land  where  there  are  hard 
clods,  and  have  almost  no  effect  at  a  greater  depth 


TILLAGE.  19 

than  three  or  four  inches.  For  clay  land  especially  it 
is  better  to  harrow  promptly  after  plowing  if  a  crop 
is  to  be  soon  sown. 

In  recent  years  there  has  been  a  great  increase  in 
the  number  a-nd  variety  of  implements  or  machines 
which,  instead  of  pushing  the  soil  about  as  does  the 
harrow  tooth,  cut  it  by  means  of  blades  or  revolving 
disks.  For  many  purposes  such  implements  are  very 
valuable.  They  pulverize  the  surface  more  effectually 
than  the  harrow,  and  often  loosen  it  to  a  greater  depth. 
They  do  not  leave  the  surface  smooth  and  level  as 
will  a  good  harrow.  They  are  being  increasingly 
used  instead  of  the  plow  for  preparing  loose  soils, 
when  comparatively  free  from  stubble,  for  spring -sown 
small  grain  crops. 

Boiling. — On  many  soils  a  good  roller  is  one  of 
the  most  useful  of  farm  machines.  Used  soon  after 
the  land  is  plowed,  when  the  surface  is  neither  wet 
hor  thoroughly  dry,  it  quite  effectually  breaks  up  clods 
and  tends  to  level  and  compact  the  surface.  Rolling 
cloddy,  compact  soils  which  have  been  plowed  when 
wet,  may  do  some  good,  but  the  tendency  is  to  push 
the  clods  into  the  ground  rather  than  to  pulverize 
them.  Rolling  light  soils  tends  to  check  evaporation. 
Seeds  are  often  better  covered  if  the  land  be  rolled 
after  the  seeds  have  been  harrowed  in.  Rolling  grass, 
clover  or  small  grain  in  the  early  spring  often  greatly 
reduces  injury  from  freezing  and  thawiag,  as  well  as 
makes  the  surface  smoother  for  mowing.  A  roller  of 
large  diameter  is  better  for  this  last  use;  one  of  equal 
weight  but  less  diameter  will  be  more  effective  in  pul- 
verizing the  surface  soil. 

Instead  of  rollers,  many  farmers  use  what  may  be 


80  THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

called  "smoothers."  These  are  made  in  many  forms. 
A  cheap  and  effective  form  is  made  by  fastening  two 
or  three  planks  together,  preferably  with  some  dis- 
tance between  them,  and  dragging  them,  broadside, 
over  the  surface.  For  leveling  the  surface  and  pul- 
verizing clods  such  an  implement  is  often  better  than 
either  harrow  or  roller. 

Tillage  During  Crop  Orowth. — The  state- 
ment that  a  large  part  of  the  cultivation  of  a  crop 
should  be  done  before  it  is  planted,  and  that  of  the  rest 
a  considerable  part  before  the  crop  has  started  to 
grow,  may  seem  extravagant,  but  it  suggests  a  truth — 
that  many  farmers  do  not  prepare  the  ground  suffi- 
ciently before  sowing  or  planting  the  crops.  As  a 
rule  the  only  cultivation  soil  designed  for  small 
grains,  grass  or  clover  receives  is  that  given  before 
sowing  the  seed.  These  crops  may  be  lightly  har- 
rowed in  the  spring  with  possible  benefit,  but  the 
practice  is  not  a  general  one.  For  the  cultivated 
crops,  as  Indian  corn,  work  in  pulverizing  the  soil  and 
destroying  weeds  can  often  be  done  to  better  advan- 
tage before  planting  than  afterwards. 

One  chief  object  in  cultivating  the  soil  while  a  crop 
is  growing  is  to  prevent  the  growth  of  weeds.  The 
best  time  to  kill  a  plant  is  soon  after  it  has  commenced 
its  growth.  A  weed  or  grain  seed  will  withstand 
much  rough  treatment  without  apparent  injury.  A 
plant  when-  well  established,  may  lose  much  of  its 
roots  or  top  and  yet  live.  A  slight  disturbance  will 
usually  kill  a  plant  just  starting  to  grow.  Harrowing 
or  otherwise  stirring  the  surface  after  the  crop  has 
been  planted  will  often  kill  many  weeds  just  starting, 
without  injuring  the  deeper  covered  seed  of  the  crop. 


TILLAGE.  81 

The  longer  weeds  are  allowed  to  grow  the  greater  the 
loss  of  food  and  water  which  the  crop  might  otherwise 
have  made  use  of. 

Aaother  chief  purpose  of  crop  cultivation  is  to  keep 
the  surface  of  the  soil  loose  and  porous.  Some  soils 
"bake"  or  "cake'^  on  the  surface,  especially  if  they 
have  been  stirred  while  wet.  Shallow  cultivation  is 
all  that  is  needed  in  such  cases.  If  the  soil  has  been 
deeply  plowed  or  is  naturally  loose,  it  will  hardly  be- 
come too  compact  while  the  crop  is  growing.  The 
roots  of  such  plants  as  corn  often  grow  more  rapidly 
than  do  the  stalks  while  the  plant  is  young.  Close, 
deep  culture  necessarily  injures  or  destroys  many 
roots.  Root  pruning  is  almost  always  injurious  to 
the  crop.  It  may  be  a  necessary  evil,  but  no  more  of 
it  should  be  done  than  is  necessary.  Deep  culture 
should  be  given,  if  at  all,  while  the  plants  are  small. 

The  relation  of  cultivation  to  ^oil  moisture  and  its 
evaporation  is  important.  Improving  the  capillary 
power  of  the  soil  may  be  accomplished  by  tillage  in 
many  cases,  by  compacting  too  open  soil,  and  loosen- 
ing too  compact  soils.  This  work,  except  at  the  sur- 
face, should  be  done  before  the  crop  is  planted.  At- 
tempts to  improve  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil  to 
the  depth  of  six  inches  after  the  crop  has  well  started 
its  growth  will  usually  do  more  harm  than  good. 
Stirring  the  surface  soil  during  drouth  causes  some' 
loss  of  moisture  by  increase  of  evaporation.  If  it  is 
desired  to  have  a  pan  of  wet  sand  dry  rapidly,  it  is 
,  well  to  stir  it.  But  the  loosening  of  the  surface  soil 
and  its  becoming  quite  dry  saves  the  moisture  in  the 
soil  by  the  dried  surface  acting  as  a  mulch  and  thus 
checking  evaporation.      A  thin  coating  of  finely  di- 


62  THE  SOILS  ANiD  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

vided  dry  earth  will  have  much  effect  in  this  direction. 
Deeply  stirring  the  soil  causes  the  loss  of  more  mois- 
ture, injury  to  more  roots  and  little  increase  in  the 
benefit  in  the  way  of  checking  evaporation.  Com- 
paratively shallow  cultivation  while  crops  are  growing 
is  very  generally  better  than  deep^  cultivation. 

So  long  as  the  ground  is  kept  free  from  weeds 
and  does  not  become  hard  or  very  compact,  there 
seems  no  good  reason  for  constant  or  very  frequent 
cultivation.  Many  crops  are  injured  by  lack  of  suffi. 
cient  cultivation;  more  by  improper  cultivation;  some 
undoubtedly  receive  more  than  is  profitable.  The 
labor  of  men  and  teams  may  be  more  profitably  em- 
ployed than  by  repeated  culture  of  a  field  already  free 
from  weeds  and  with  the  soil  in  good  condition  for 
growth  of  the  crop.  The  condition  of  the  soil  and  the 
crop  is  a  better  means  of  determining  whether  addi- 
tional cultivation  is  needed  than  is  the  number  of 
times  the  land  has  been  stirred. 

Of  recent  years  there  has  been  a  marked  increase  in 
the  number  and  popularity  of  the  tools  which  stir  the 
w-hole  surface  but  only  to  a  moderate  depth,  as  com- 
pared with  the  small  plows  or  large  shoveled  cultiva- 
tors, which  stirred  the  soil  to  a  greater  depth. 

Hand  hoeing  of  field  grain  crops  is  not  common  in 
this  country.  The  work  can  be  better  done  than  by 
horse  power,  but  the  cost  is  too  great. 


^Iw^Xw^^  ■  V^rr  ci./.  YT^yf, 

IrK/ia^-  Mn^^t;^  Cft^-T^Ty. 
%J/at-  J.i-u^ti^rMM^^-^^i- 57 fuss's. 


CHAPTER  Vn. 

ROTATION  OF  CROPS. 

A  rotation  of  crops  implies  not  only  change,  but 
change  in  a  regular  order;  that  is,  that  different  crops 
shall  be  grOwn  in  something  like  a  regular  order 
through  a  longer  or  shorter  series  of  years,  finally  get- 
ting back  to  the  starting  points  The  practice  is  believed 
to  be  very  ancient.  It  is  said  that,  hundred  of  years 
ago,  it  was  the  custom  in  parts  of  England  to  divide 
the  land  into  three  parts,  allowing  one  to  lie  in  bare 
fallow;  having  one  in  fall-sown  and  the  third  in  spring- 
sown  grain,  thus  making  a  three  years'  rotation. 

Probably  the  first  approach  to  rotation  would  be  the 
abandonment  of  a  field  after  it  had  been  cultivated 
for  some  years,  thus  allowing  it  to  become  covered 
with  natural  vegetation,  the  decay  of  which  would 
tend  to  increase  its  fertility. 

Rotation  not  Essential. — A  rotation  of  crops 
is  not  absolutely  essential  to  large  harvests  or,  in  some 
cases,  profitable  farming.  It  has  been  noticed  that 
Sir  John  B.  Lawes  has  grown  wheat  on  the  same 
ground  for  about  fifty  years,  and  that,  even  where  no 
manure  has  been  applied,  the  land  still  produces 
a  fairly  good  crop.  Like  trials  have  been  made 
with  barley  and  roots,  although  not  for  so  many  years, 
with  similar  results.  The  need  of  helping  the  fertility 
of  the  soil  in  some  way  has  been  clearly  shown  in  the 
case  of  each  crop.  But  where  either  stable  or  arti- 
ficial manures  have  been  regularly  applied,  it  has  been 
shown  to  be  possible  to  produce   large  crops  for   a 


84    THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

long  series  of  years,  without  change,  or  rest  to  the 
land.  In  a  good  many  cases  in  this  country,  where 
some  special  crop  has  been  thought  particularly  pro- 
fitable, it  has  been  shown  possible  to  grow  it  annually 
for  many  years  on  the  same  land,  by  reasonable  use 
of  manures. 

In  exceptional  cases  such  a  course  of  continued 
cropping  without  change  may  be  wise  and  profitable. 
The  general  practice  of  good  farmers  and  abundant 
experimental  evidence,  however,  show  that  a  rotation 
of  crops  is  usually  wise. 

Bea^on^^  for  Rotating  Cropis, — The  reasons 
why  a  rotation  of  crops  is  usually  good  practice  may 
be  divided  into  two  classes:  Those  which  concern  the 
convenience  and  probable  immediate  profit  of  the 
farm  work,  and,  secondly,  those  which  relate  to  main- 
taining or  increasing  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

Aside  from  the  usual  arguments  in  favor  of  produc- 
ing something  of  a  variety  of  crops  on  a  farm,  such  as 
that  this  practice  reduces  the  risks  of  the  farmer, 
since  it  is  not  probable  that  all  will  be  poor  in  yield  or 
low  in  price,  and  that  it  better  distributes  the  work 
of  the  year,  enables  the  farmer  better  to  provide  for 
live-stock,  etc.,  all  of  which  have  some  bearing  on  ro- 
tation, it  is  also  true  that  one  crop  may  more  profit- 
ably follow  another  than  itself,  from  its  leaving 
the  soil  in  better  condition.  Land  long  kept  in  crops 
which  are  not  cultivated  while  growing  is  liable  to 
become  infested  with  weeds. 

The  most  important  reason  for  rotation  is  that  the 
practice  helps  keep  up  the  productiveness  of  the  land. 
Three  reasons  why  this  is  true  may  be  given: 

1.  While  all  farm  crops  are  made  up  of  the  same 


ROTATION   OF  CROPS.  85 

chemical  elements  the  proportion  in  which  they  use 
these  varies  greatly.  So,  also,  the  quantity  and  pro- 
portion of  these  they  leave  on  the  soil,  in  the  stubble 
or  refuse,  differs  much. 

2.  The  range  of  the  roots  and  the  power  of  assim- 
ilating plant  food  differs  much  in  different  crops. 

3.  Farm  crops  differ  much  in  the  length  of  time 
required  to  come  to  maturity,  and  in  the  time  of  year 
in  which  they  make  much  of  their  growth. 

An  ordinary  grain  crop  will  take  from  the  soil  much 
less  potash  than  will  a  crop  of  clover,  potatoes  or  any 
of  the  root  crops.  A  crop  of  oats  will  take  more  pot- 
ash than  will  one  of  wheat  or  Indian  corn.  A  crop  of 
clover  will  take  considerably  more  phosphoric  acid 
than  will  a  grain  crop,  while  one  of  mangels  or  tur- 
nips will  take  considerably  more  than  will  the  clover. 
Obviously  there  is  an  advantage  so  far  as  the  supply 
of  these  substances  is  concerned  in  alternating  crops 
which  take  less  with  those  which  take  more. 

The  red  clover  plant,  in  a  suitable  soil,  sends  its 
roots  down  to  a  greater  depth  than  the  mass  of  the 
roots  of  such  a  grass  a^  Kentucky  blue  grass.  A  long, 
large  mangel  or  sugar  beet  sends  its  roots  much 
deeper  than  a  round  turnip.  The  strong  growing,  far- 
reaching  roots  of  corn  go  deeper  than  those  of  oats. 
The  deep  and  shallow-rooted  plants  will  obtain  much 
of  their  mineral  food  at  different  depths.  A  well 
established  crop  of  red  clover  would  obtain  a  large 
part  of  its  food  from  a  depth  scarcely  reached  by  a 
crop  of  white  clover  or  potatoes. 

The  unusual  depth  to  which  clover  sends  its  roots, 
and  the  large  size  of  these  roots,  which  greatly  in- 
creases the  stock  of  vegetable  matter  left  in  the  soil, 


*v 


86         THE  SOILS  AND  CKOPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

are  reasons  for  the  high  esteem  in  which  clover  is  held 
as  a  valuable  crop  in  any  system  of  rotation.  Another 
important  reason  is  found  in  the  fact  that  the  clovers 
and  other  leguminous  crops, such  as  peas  and  beans,  are 
able  to  assimilate  greater  quantities  of  nitrogen  than 
are  the  cereal,  grass,  or  root  crops.  In  recent  years 
it  has  been  shown  that  leguminous  plants  have  the 
power,  not  possessed  by  other  plants,  of  assimilating 
the  free  nitrogen  of  the  air.  It  is  believed  that  this 
power  is  the  result  of  the  action  of  minute  organisms 
which  cause  the  formation  of  tubercles  on  the  roots 
of  plants  of  this  order..  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that, 
although  a  crop  of  clover  hay  will  often  contain  twice 
as  much  nitrogen  as  will  a  crop  of  wheat,  oats,  corn  or 
grass,  it  leaves  so  much  nitrogen  in  its  roots  and  stems 
that  the  soil  contains  more  of  this  especially  valuable 
element  than  it  had  before  the  clover  was  grown.  A 
good  crop  of  clover  may  be  grown  on  soil  which, 
because  of  lack  of  nitrogen,  would  not  produce  a  good 
crop  of  wheat.  After  removing  the  hay,  the  soil  may 
be  fitted  to  give  a  good  grain  crop  the  next  year  by 
plowing  under  the  stubble. 

It  has  already  been  stated  that  there  is  a  loss  of 
nitrogen  from  the  soil  in  drainage  water  or  by  its  be- 
ing washed  into  an  open  subsoil.  In  wet  weather, 
especially  where  there  are  warm  and  wet  winters,  the 
loss  in  this  way  may  be  considerable.  The  loss  is 
greater  on  soils  free  from  vegetation  than  on  those  on 
which  a  crop  is  growing.  The  roots  of  the  growing 
plants  take  up  and  make  use  of  nitrogen  which  other- 
wise might  be  lost.  Especially  is  this  true  of  deep- 
rooted  plants.  The  roots  of  red  clover  have  been 
called  "nitrogen  traps."     Obviously  crops  like  pasture 


BOTATION  OF  CROPS.  87 

grasses,  or  clover,  which  continue  to  grow  from  early 
spring  until  late  autumn,can  make  use  of  more  nitrogen 
than  those  which  finish  their  growth  in  early  summer, 
,  as  wheat.  Indian  corn,  in  this  respect,  has  a  great 
advantage  over  the  small  grains.  It  makes  much  of 
its  growth  after  wheat  has  fully  matured.  It  is  thus 
able  to  make  use  of  the  supplies  of  available  nitrogen 
which  are  being  formed  during  the  summer.  Still 
more  is  this  true  of  grass  or  clover,  which  continue  to 
grow  still  later  in  the  season. 

It  seems  reasonable  to  believe  that  plants  which 
have  a  long  season  of  growth  can  thrive  fairly  well  on 
soils  with  a  less  supply  of  available  plant  food  of  any 
kind  than  can  those  which  make  their  growth  in  a 
short  time. 

In  soils  with  loose,  open  subsoils  or  where  manure 
with  much  nitrogen  has  been  applied,  especially  in 
regions  where  there  is  considerable  rain  in  the  autumn 
and  early  spring,  there  is  good  reason  for  following 
early  ripening  crops  with  some  fall-growing  crops,  as 
wheat  or  rye,  or  for  seeding  the  land  with  clover  or 
grass. 

Green  Manuring. — One  form  of  rotation  of  crops 
which  is  often  highly  recommended  is  the  growth  of 
crops  with  sole  reference  to  their  manurial  value.  In 
this  country,  sowing  a  crop  of  clover  or  buckwheat,  or 
of  cow  peas  in  the  Southern  States,  in  the  spring,  or  of 
rye  in  the  fall,  and  plowing  the  crop  under  when  it 
has  made  a  good  growth,  are  the  most  common 
methods  of  green  manuring.  The  effects  are  often 
very  noticeable.  The  store  of  vegetable  matter  in  the 
soil  is  largely  increased.  Sometimes  this  much  im- 
proves the  physical  condition  of  the  soil.     Always  the 


88    THE  SOILS  AND  CEOPS  OF  THE  FAEM. 

decay  of  this  matter  increases  the  humus  and,  ulti- 
mately, the  supply  of  available  mineral  plant  food 
near  the  surface. 

The  objection  to  this  practice  is  that  no  direct  re- 
turn, aside  from  the  increase  of  fertility  of  the  soil,  is 
made  for  the  time,  labor  and  seed  used,  or,  in  many 
cases,  the  land  brings  no  money  crop  for  a  year. 
Sowing  clover  with  small  grain  crops  and  plowing 
this  under  in  preparation  for  a  wheat  crop  in  the  fall 
or  corn  crop  in  the  spring  is  a  practice  becoming 
more  and  more  common.  The  only  extra  expenditure 
in  this  case  is  the  cost  of  the  seed.  Some  one  has 
said  the  only  objection  to  this  practice  is  that,  as  a 
rule,  it  would  be  still  better  practice  to  allow  the 
clover  to  stand  another  year,  utilizing  the  crop  for 
pasturage  or  hay,  and  then  plowing  under  the  sec- 
ond growth. 

Fortunately  it  is  not  usually  necessary  to  use  a  crop 
solely  for  manuring.  A  part  of  the  growth  may  be 
utilized  for  hay  or,  better,  for  pasture,  with  little  loss 
of.  the  manurial  value  of  the  crop,  it  being  under- 
stood that  the  manure  made  from  the  crop  taken  oJBP 
is  to  be  returned,  as  well  as  the  part  of  the  crop  not 
removed  plowed  under. 

Choice  of  Crops  in  Rotation. — The  crops  to 
be  used  in  a  rotation  will  be  selected  with  reference 
to  the  ease  with  which  they  can  be  grown,  and  their 
market  or  feeding  value,  as  well  as  their  value  in 
maintaining  fertility,  and  the  needs  of  the  soil  of  the 
locality.  Fixed  rotations  have  never  been  so  common 
in  the  United  States  as  in  Great  Britain,  and,  even 
therO)  more  variation  is  allowed  than  formerly.  Sjil 
and  climate  must  have  large  influence,,  but  the  relative 


ROTATION  OF  CROPS.  89 

value  of  different  crops,  the  facilities  for  marketing 
them,  the  greater  or  less  price  of  live-stock  products 
and  the  present  money  needs  of  the  farmer,  often 
must  determine  the  exact  rotation  he  adopts. 

The  alternation  of  grain'with  green  crops;  of  culti- 
vated with  uncultivated  crops,  are  fundamental  prin- 
ciples in  theoretical  rotations.  So  far  as  maintaining 
fertility  is  concerned  it  would  probably  never  be  best 
to  repeat  a  grain  crop  without  an  intervening  green 
crop,  but  in  practice  it  is  often  best  to  cultivate  the 
same  crop  two,  sometimes  even  more,  years  in  suc- 
cession. 

In  Great  Britain  roots  are  the  chief  cultivated  crop. 
In  the  United  States,  Indian  corn  is  the  principal 
cultivated  crop.  Unlike  as  maize  and  root  crops  are 
in  other  respects  this  one  point  in  common  makes 
each  promiilent  in  the  best  systems  of  rotation  in 
the  country  in  which  they  are  grown. 

The  "Norfolk"  four  course,  or  four  years  rotation, 
has  b(^n  very  popular  on  light  land  in  England.  The 
order  of  cropping  is:  Roots;  grain,  usually  barley; 
"seeds,"  that  is,  a  mixture  of  clover  and  grasses; 
grain,  usually  wheat — each  one  year.  The  roots 
are  turnips,  or  mangels,  and  are  often  eaten  by  sheep 
on  the  ground  where  they  grew.  Sometimes,  clover, 
rye,  turnips,  or  vetches  are  sown  after  the  wheat  is 
harvested  and  these  crops  followed  by  the  regular 
root  crop.  On  poorer  soils,  or  where  it  is  not  desired 
to  have  a  grain  crop  so  frequently,  the  "seeds"  may 
be  left  two  or  three  years,  as  is  the  usual  practice  in 
this  country.  In  some  parts  of  England  the  rotations 
are  very  elaborate,  lasting  several  years  and  intro- 
ducing a  variety  of  "catch  crops." 


90    THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

Prof.  Wrightsoa  gives  the  following  specimen  rota- 
tions for  clay  lands  in  England:  Poor  clays — Fallow, 
bare  or  cropped;  wheat;  beans,  or  oats,  or  clover. 
Better  clays — Fallow;  wheat;  beans;  oats.  Rich 
clays — Fallow;  wheat;  beans;  wheat;  clover;  wheat. 
In  each  case  the  fallow  land  may  be  cultivated 
throughout  the  season  or  have  a  "catch  crop"  on  it 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  season. 

In  this  country  "roots,"  even  including  potatoes,  are 
little  grown  in  comparison  with  the  cereals.  Peas 
and  beans  also  form  but  a  very  small  percentage  of 
the  crop  acreage.  Over  much  of  the  country  the 
choice  in  rotation  is  practically  limited  to  grass  and 
clover,  as  the  green  crop;  the  small  grains,  usually 
either  wheat  or  oats  or  both,  and  Indian  corn  as  the 
hoed  or  cultivated  crop.  In  a  rotation  made  up  of 
these,  the  grass,  and  especially  the  clover,  will  be  the 
^^manuring  crop,"  the  corn  the  "cleansing  crop,"  and 
the  small  grains  will  be,  as  a  whole,  the  most  "ex- 
hausting crops."  There  are  large  regions  to  which 
these  statements  do  not  apply — as  in  the  cotton, 
special  potato,  or  tobacco -growing  regions,  but  the  to- 
tals of  these,  large  as  they  are,  are  relatively  small. 

Where  it  is  adapted  to  the  soil  and  climate,  red 
clover  is  the  most  valuable  crop  in  a  rotation  for  this 
country.  It  gives  a  large  crop  of  good  food  for 
either  pasture  or  hay.  It  leaves  a  large  quantity  of 
vegetable  matter  on  and  in  the  soil,  in  its  roots  and 
stubble.  This  contains  much  nitrogen,  and  the  min- 
eral matter  has  largely  been  [brought  from  a  lower 
depth  of  soil  than  the  roots  of  some  crops  reach. 
The  decay  of  the  roots  not  only  increases  the  stock  of 
humus  in  the  soil  but  helps  its  physical  condition. 


ROTATION  OF  CROPS.  91 

The  usual  meadow  and  pasture  grasses  also  do 
good,  if  well  managed.  Where  live-stock  is  pastured 
on  a  grass  field  comparatively  little  valuable  matter  is 
carried  off.  If  the  animals  are  well  fed  with  grain, 
their  droppings  may  make  the  soil  more  fertile.  The 
quantity  of  both  nitrogen  and  ash  ingredients  in  the 
surface  soil  will  be  considerably  increased.  That  an 
old  pasture  ground,  when  broken  up,  will  usually  give 
a  fine  corn  crop  is  well  known.  Permanent  pastures 
are  not  so  common  in  this  country  as  in  Great  Britain, 
the  pasture  lands  here  being  usually  included  in  the 
rotation.  As  a  whole,  this  tends  to  keep  up  the  fertility 
of  the  whole  farm.  Hay-making  and  selling  is  more 
exhaustive  than  pasturage,  and  a  continuance  of  this 
practice  without  manuring  the  meadows  is  not  advisa- 
ble, but  the  accumulation  of  humus  and  readily  availa- 
ble mineral  plant  food  in  the  roots  and  stems  of  the 
grass  is  such  that  when  an  old  meadow  is  plowed  it 
frequently  gives  a  good  yield  of  grain,  notwithstand- 
ing the  loss  of  plant  food  by  the  sale  of  the  hay. 

Indian  corn  is  now  generally  thought  a  less  ex- 
haustive crop  than  it  was  formerly  believed  to  be. 
The  longer  period  of  growth,  as  compared  with  the 
small  grains ;  the  fact  that  it  can  make  use  of  nitrogen 
supplies  made  available  during  the  summer  and  early 
autumn;  the  fact  that  it  has  abundant,  wide -spreading 
and  deep  running  roots,  and  the  fact,  that,  in  many  parts 
of  the  country,  only  the  grain  is  removed,  the  stalks, 
leaves  and  husks  being  left  on  the  ground,  help  ex- 
plain why  it  does  not  decrease  fertility  so  rapidly  as 
its  large  yield  might  suggest. 

Oats  are  popularly  supposed  to  be  exhaustive,  but 
the  oat  crop  is  the  one  crop  the  application  of  ma- 


92  THE  SOILS  AND  CBOPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

nure  to  which,  when  grown  on  lands  of  moderate  fer- 
tility, is  often  injurious.  The  growth  of  straw  is 
liable  *to  be  unduly  stimulated  and  the  crop  to  fall 
down. 

The  great  maize  growing  states  are  also  great  cattle 
rearing  regions,  hence  there  is  much  pasturage  and 
meadow  required.  In  these  states  the  following  rota- 
tion is  not  uncommon:  Three  years  in  grass  and 
clover,  two  years  corn,  one  year  small  grain  (wheat 
or  oats),  seeded  with  grass  and  clover.  If  less  stock 
is  kept  the  grass  and  clover  may  be  kept  but  two 
years.  If  the  small  grains  are  more  prominently 
grown,  wheat  may  be  grown  two  years  in  succession. 
If  the  land  is  not  so  well  adapted  to  corn,  there  may 
be  but  one  crop  of  this.  Commonly,  however,  the 
second  crop  is  fully  as  good  as  the  first.  While  not 
considered  so  good  practice,  three  or  even  more  com 
crops  are  not  unfrequently  taken  in  succession,  on 
fertile  prairie  or  alluvial  soil.  In  this  general  rota- 
tion the  manure  is  usually  applied  to  the  land  while 
in  grass,  either  as  a  top  dressing  for  its  benefit,  or  to 
be  plowed  under  for  the  corn  crop. 

Where  pasturage  is  the  main  feature,  or  where  the 
laud  is  thinner  and  not  so  well  adapted  to  corn,  the 
land  may  remain  in  grass  several  years,  the  clover 
usually  mainly  disappearing. 

Over  some  considerable  areas  a  four-course  rotation, 
but  with  many  modifications,  is  practiced.  It  may 
be:  Corn;  oats  or  fallow;  wheat;  clover  and  grass. 
In  this  case  the  manure  will  be  applied  to  the  fallow 
ground  or  the  oat  stubble  for  wheat. 

Even  in  the  almost  exclusive  grain- growing  regions 
some  benefit  is  found  to  result  from  alternating  the 
com  and  the  small  grain  crops. 


BOTATION  OF  CROPS.  93 

Double  cropping  is  not  common.  Sometimes  a 
crop  of  corn  or  sorghum  or  millet  may  be  grown  after 
wheat  and  removed  in  time  for  another  wheat  crop. 
As  has  been  stated,  the  practice  of  sowing  clover  in 
the  spring  on  the  wheat  or  oats  ground,  whether  the  land 
is  designed  for  wheat  the  next  fall  or  is  to  be  put  in 
corn  the  next  year,  is  growing  in  favor. 

Clover  alternated  with  some  one  grain  or  with  the 
potato  crop  is  an  uncommon  but  successful  rotation. 

With  a  careful  rotation,  especially  if  clover  have 
a  prominent  place  in  it,  land  of  naturally  fair  quality, 
if  well  tilled,  may  be  cropped  for  many  years  without 
showing  much,  if  any,  reduction  in  yield.  Some  in- 
telligent farmers  think  that,  with  a  good  rotation  and 
good  tillage,  the  application  of  manures  is  unneces- 
sary. It  may  be  for  a  considerable  number  of  years, 
but  depreciation  of  fertility  will  finally  come.  Good 
tillage,  a  good  rotation,  and  liberal  manuring,  com- 
bined, are  the  best  security  against  ultimate  loss. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE  CHOIOE  AND  IMPMOYEMENT  OF  CROPS. 

There  is  a  large  variety  of  crops  grown  on  the 
farms  of  the  United  States.  A  very  few,  however, 
occupy  most  of  the  acreage.  What  is  popularly 
called  the  grass  crop — including  many  varieties  of 
grasses  and  the  clovers — grown  for  pasturage  and 
hay,  occupies  the  largest  area  and  has  the  greatest 
value.  Next  to  this  come  the  three  great  cereals,  corn, 
wheat  and  oats.  The  acreage  in  corn  is  about  twice 
that  in  wheat  and  three  times  that  in  oats.  Cotton 
comes  next  in  acreage.  Large  as  is  the  acreage  in 
some  other  crops  there  is  none  which  makes  any 
considerable  percentage  of  the  total  cultivated  area. 
A  million  of  acres  is  a  very  large  tract  of  land,  but  it 
is  insignificant  when  compared  with  the  hundreds  of 
millions  of  acres  in  the  farms  of  the  country. 

There  has  been  rapid  increase  in  the  cultivated 
acreage  of  the  country  and  some  changes  in  the  pro- 
portion given  to  different  crops,  but  there  is  little 
reason  to  believe  that  the  time  will  soon  come  when 
grass,  corn,  wheat  and  oats  will  not  be  the  leading 
crops  of  the  country,  at  least  so  far  as  extent  of  acre- 
age is  concerned. 

Almost  every  crop  now  grown  on  the  farms  of  the 
United  States  had  been  grown  to  some  extent  before 
the  revolutionary  war.  Improvements  in  methods  of 
culture  or  in  machinery  for  utilizing  the  crop  have 
brought  some  crops  into  greater  relative  importance. 
This  has  been  noticeably   true   of   cotton,  and  it  is 

94 


CHOICE  AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  CROPS.    95 

much  to  be  hoped  may  be  true  of  beets   and  sorghum 
for  the  manufacture  of  sugar. 

The  possibilities  of  crop  production  depend  mainly 
on  climate  and  soil.  Of  these  the  climate  is  the  more 
important.  Manuring,  culture,  or  drainage  may  great- 
ly modify  the  soil  and  make  it  fit  for  crops  for  which 
it  was  illy  prepared.  Plants,  like  animals,  have  great 
adaptability;  they  may  become  acclimated  and  do 
fairly  well  where  neither  soil  nor  climate  is  like  that 
in  their  native  land.  Usually,  however,  it  is  unwise 
to  attempt  the  growth  of  any  crop  which  experience 
has  shown  to  be  illy  adapted  to  the  climate  and  soil 
of  a  given  region;  at  least  as  a  leading  crop. 

The  profitableness  of  the  growth  of  a  given  crop  de- 
pends not  only  on  the  climate  and  soil,  but  very 
largely  on  the  market  facilities,  and,  so  far  as  the  in- 
dividual farmer  is  concerned,  largely  on  his  tastes, 
experience  and  capital.  The  farming  in  many  parts  of 
this  country  has  greatly  changed,  not  because  of  soil 
exhaustion  or  changes  of  climate,  but  because  of 
changes  in  the  market  demands.  Usually,  in  regions 
recently  settled,  where  land  is  low-priced  and  trans- 
portation facilities  are  poor,  farmers  devote  them- 
selves to  grazing  cattle  or  sheep  or  to  the  production 
of  crops,  like  corn  and  wheat  or  cotton,  which  can  be 
readily  transported  long  distances.  Where  the  soil 
and  climate  are  favorable  wheat  has  been  a  favorite 
crop  with  new  settlers,  because  a  considerable  acre- 
age can  be  grown  with  comparatively  little  expendi- 
ture of  money  or  labor,  and  a  money  return  can  be 
secured  more  quickly  than  if  stock-raising  be  selected 
as  the  chief  business.  As  the  land  advances  in  value, 
especially  near  large  cities,  the  production  of  crops 


96  THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

which  give  a  larger  money  return  for  the  acreage  and 
of  such  as  cannot  be  carried  great  distances  without  in- 
jury becomes  more  common.  Thus  supplying  milk  to 
large  cities  is  now  a  chief  business  on  farms  formerly 
devoted  to  grain  growing. 

The  general  practice  is  usually  the  safest  guide. 
There  are  many  exceptions  to  this,  but  no  safer  rule 
can  be  given  to  one  about  commencing  farming  in  a 
region  with  which  he  has  little  acquaintance  than  to 
follow  the  practice  of  the  most  successful  farmers  in 
the  vicinity,  at  least  in  the  beginning  of  his  work.  As 
stated,  there  are  many  exceptions.  It  not  infrequently 
happens  that  the  most  profitable  farming  in  a  com- 
munity is  that  by  some  one  who  has  introduced  a  new 
industry,  or  sought  to  give  a  home  supply  of  some 
article  which  has  hitherto  been  brought  from  a  dis- 
tance. A  man  of  special  skill  and  intelligence  may 
sometimes  wisely  work  against  peculiarities  of  climate 
and  soil.  It  often  happens  that  those  who  are  first  to 
see  the  probable  value  of  a  crop  new  to  the  region,  or 
first  to  adapt  their  farming  to  changing  conditions, 
are  much  more  successful  than  their  neighbors. 

Specialties  or  Greneral  Farming. — For  most 
farmers  the  production  of  several  crops  is  safer  and 
wiser  than  giving  nearly  exclusive  attention  to  one 
crop.  Here  again  there  are  many  exceptions.  A 
wisely  selected  specialty  often  gives  much  larger 
profits  than  come  to  the  farmer  who  divides  his 
efforts  between  several  branches  of  farming.  The 
specialty  farmer  ought  to  learn  more  about  produc- 
ing and  disposing  of  his  one  crop  than  if  he  looked 
after  several.  He  has  a  better  opportunity  of  making 
a  good  reputation  and  of  getting  somewhat  higher 


CHOICE  AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  CROPS.        97 

prices.  He  may  be  able  to  produce  more  cheaply  by 
a  better  use  of  machinery. 

General  farming  usually  enables  the  farmer  to  dis- 
tribute his  labor  and  that  of  his  employes  and  teams 
to  better  advantage  throughout  the  year.  It  gives 
the  advantages  of  a  rotation  of  crops,  and,  if  stock 
feeding  be  a  part  of  the  system,  of  retaining  much  of 
the  manurial  value  of  the  crops  on  the  farm.  It  is 
something  of  a  safeguard  against  poor  yields  and  poor 
prices.  It  rarely  happens  that  all  the  crops  give  poor 
yields  and  also  bring  low  prices.  This  may  happen 
with  a  specialty  in  any  one  locality. 

The  attempt  to  produce  a  little  of  each  of  a  large 
variety  of  crops  on  any  farm  is  almost  always  unwise. 
The  safe  rule  is  to  give  the  chief  attention  to  one  or 
two  or  three  crops,  but  not  limit  the  farm  work  to 
these. 

The  tendency  in  farming,  as  in  almost  all  classes 
of  business,  is  toward  specialization  of  effort  and  di- 
vision of  labor.  This  is  wise,,  but  it  may  be  carried  too 
far.  It  is  not  now  wise  for  farmers  to  attempt  to 
clothe  themselves  with  the  wool  or  cotton  produced  on 
their  own  farms  or  to  produce  all  that  they  eat;  but  it 
is  not  the  best  management  for  the  largest  number  of 
farmers  in  this  country  to  buy  any  large  part  of  the 
food  of  their  teams  or  other  live-stock  on  their  farms. 

For  reasons  which  need  not  be  discussed  here,  but 
largely  because  the  feeding  of  farm  animals  on  the 
farm  is  one  of  the  best  methods  of  preventing  de- 
crease of  fertility,  animal  husbandry  in  some  form 
should  be  a  part  of  the  system  of  management  on  the 
majority  of  the  farms  in  the  country.  Meat,  milk  or 
wool  is  most  cheaply  produced  where  the  animals  get 


98  THE  SOILS  ^ND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

most  or  all  their  food  by  grazing  in  good  pastures. 
Hence  liberal  provision  for  grass  or  some  of  the  clo- 
vers should  be  made  on  most  stock  farms.  In  most 
cases  it  is  also  best  that  the  greater  part  of  the  grain  or 
other  food  given  them  should  also  be  produced  on  the 
farm.  The  by-products  of  manufactures  are  com- 
ing more  and  more  in  use,  and  it  is  well  this  is  so. 
Oil  cake  or  meal,  whether  of  linseed  or  cottonseed, 
will  doubtless  become  a  still  more  popular  food  than  it 
now  is.  Bran,  etc.,  may  often  be  purchased  with  profit, 
but  corn  and  oats  will  long  remain  the  chief  grain 
food  for  farm  animals.  Wheat  will  probably  long 
continue  to  be  the  great  bread  grain  for  civilized  man. 
The  great  majority  of  the  farmers  north  of  thirty- five 
degrees  or  thirty-six  degrees  north  latitude  will  do  most 
wisely,  so  long  as  present  conditions  continue,  to  make 
some  or  all  of  these  crops  the  chief  product  of  their 
farms. 

There  are  large  areas  in  which  minor  crops  may  be 
more  profitable  than  these  great  staples,  and  in  very 
many  neighborhoods  a  few  farmers  may  do  well  to  se- 
lect seme  special  line  of  work.  Thus  in  the  neighbor- 
hood in  which  this  is  written,  large  profits  were  former- 
ly made  on  broom-corn.  Now  this  crop  is  scarcely 
grown  in  this  vicinity,  but  the  presence  of  a  large 
cordage  manufactory  makes  the  culture  of  hemp  an 
especially  profitable  branch  of  farming,  and  a  number 
of  farms  are  almost   exclusively  devoted  to  this  crop. 

Cotton  will  certainly  continue  to  be  the  chief  farm 
crop  of  some  Southern  states,  and  it  is  probable  the 
area  in  the  Gulf  states  in  which  sugar  cane  is  most 
largely  grown  will  extend.  It  is  believed,  however, 
that  more  variety  of  crops,  allowing  some  rotation, 
would  be  better  in  these  regions. 


I 


CHOICE  AKD  IMPEOVEMENT  OF  CHOPS.         99 

Potato  culture  and  the  growing  of  what  are  called 
market  garden  crops,  as  well  as  fruit  growing,  are  more 
profitable  than  ordinary  grain  growing  in  a  good  many- 
localities ;  but  important  as  these  crops  are  they  are 
still  minor  crops  and  engage  the  attention  of  but  a 
comparatively  small  percentage  of  the  farmers  of  the 
country. 

Specific  rules  which  shall  be  applicable  to  all  parts 
of  the  country  cannot  be  given.  The  great  staple 
crops  can  safely  be  grown  where  soil  and  climate  are 
adapted  to  them  and  where  there  are  reasonable  trans- 
portation facilities.  When  practicable  a  rotation  is 
better  than  continuous  growth  of  any  crop,  and  it  is 
very  desirable  to  give  a  place  in  the  rotation  to  clo- 
ver or  some  plant  of  the  same  family.  Generally  the 
crops  of  which  the  larger  part  is  retained  on  the  farm 
are  to  be  prefened.  The  growth  of  broom-corn,  where 
only  the  brush  is  sold  and  this  cut  before  the  seed  has 
matured,  is  less  exhaustive  to  the  soil  than  is  the 
continued  culture  of  Indian  corn  where  the  grain  is 
sold.  The  order  of  cropping  which  will  give  em- 
ployment during  most  of  the  year  is  ordinarily  to 
be   preferred. 

Specialities  which  require  most  of  intelligence  and 
skill  may  give  largest  profits,  with  possibilities  of  large 
losses. 

Improvement  of  Farm  Crops. — Probably  there 
is  no  grain,  grass,  fibre,  or  root  crop  cultivated  in  the 
United  States  which  has  not  been  greatly  changed 
since  it  was  a  wild  plant.  In  recent  years  many  new 
varieties  have  been  produced,  differing  in  marked  de- 
grees from  those  formerly  cultivated.  Farmers  gener- 
ally do  not  actively  interest  themselves  in  the  improve- 


iOO        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

ment  of  their  crops;  are  not  always  careful  to  main- 
tain them  in  their  present  standard  of  excellence. 
Much  can  be  done  in  this  direction.  It  is  often  un- 
necessary to  rely  on  specialists  or  to  pay  high  prices 
for  improved  varieties.  A  frequent  change  of  seed  is 
not  necessarily  a  good  thing;  certainly  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  obtain  seed  from  distant  parts  of  the  country 
for  a  region  where  the  soil  and  climate  is  well  suited 
to  the  crop.  If  the  region  is  not  well  adapted  to  the 
crop  frequent  new  supplies  of  seed  may  be  helpful  or 
even  essential.  Probably  no  part  of  the  world  is  bet- 
ter adapted  to  Indian  corn  than  is  much  of  the  central 
Mississippi  Valley.  There  would  seem  to  be  no  good 
reason  for  changing  seed  of  corn  in  this  region.  Much 
of  this  same  region  is  not  equally  well  suited  for  the 
oat  crop.  The  climate  is  too  dry  and  hot.  The  oats  are 
much  lighter  than  those  produced  in  more  moist  and 
cool  regions.  Obtaining  seed  oats  from  regions  where 
the  crop  does  better  is  good  business  management. 
Three  methods  of  crop  improvement  are  commonly 
used.  These  are  selection,  cultivation,  and  crossing. 
With  some  crops,  as  Indian  corn,  all  these  methods  are 
easily  practiced.  With  some,  as  with  the  small  grains 
and  grasses,  crossing  is  more  difficult.  With  plants, 
as  with  animals,  the  rule  is  that  like  produces  like,  or 
the  offspring  resembles  the  parent.  Many  things 
may  cause  variation  but  the  tendency  is  toward  almost 
exact  reproduction.  Persistent  selection  of  seed 
from  plants  possessing  any  characteristic  will  tend  to 
fix  that  characteristic  until  it  will  almost  certainly  be 
reproduced.  Much  less  attention  is  paid  to  selection  of 
most  seeds  than  is  given  to  selection  in  animal  breed- 
ing, but  like  results  may  be  expected  to  follow. 


CHOICE  AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  CROPS.    101 

It  is  not  alone  the  character  of  the  seed  but  of  the 
whole  plant  that  may  be  affected  by  selection.  Selec- 
tion simply  with  reference  to  the  size  or  shape  or  color 
of  the  seed  is  faulty.  The  character  of  the  plant  pro- 
ducing the  seed  should  also  be  determined.  Selection 
before  or  at  the  time  of  harvesting  is  wiser  than  se- 
lection from  the  granary.  In  this  way  the  size,  form, 
time  of  maturing,  and  prolificacy  of  the  plant  may  be 
determined. 

Good  cultivation  will  tend  to  improve  varieties;  at 
least  tend  to  prevent  deterioration.  Thick  or  thin 
seeding  has  a  marked  effect  on  the  quantity  of  seed 
produced.  The  best  varieties  may  become  poor  if 
given  poor  treatment. 

The  production  of  new  varieties  by  cross-fertiliza- 
tion may  unite  good  qualities  of  both  or  secure  im- 
provement. Sometimes  greater  vigor  of  plant  or  pro- 
ductiveness is  thus  secured.  Occasional  production  of 
new  varieties  of  potatoes  from  the  seed  seems  almost 
essential.  Sometimes  a  single  plant  of  grain,  grass, 
clover  or  other  crop  may,  from  some  unknown  cause, 
present  some  desirable  quality  in  unusual  degree. 
Selection  of  seed  from  such  a  plant  is  not  "small 
business."  It  may  prove  a  profitable  step.  Some 
widely  famous  varieties  of  grain  had  their  origin  in 
this  way. 

A  definite  idea  of  what  is  wanted,  careful  and  per- 
sistent selection  with  reference  to  the  possession  of  the 
desired  qualities,  and  then  good  cultivation,  is  often 
a  wiser  method  of  getting  good  varieties  of  farm  crops 
than  purchasing  new  varieties  from  a  distance  and  at 
high  prices, 


CHAPTER   IX. 

WHEAT. 

History. — The  cultivation  of  wheat  is  much  older 
than  the  history  of  man.  Very  ancient  monuments, 
much  older  than  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  show  its  cul- 
tivation already  established.  The  Egyptians  and 
Greeks  attributed  its  origin  tD  mythical  personages. 
The  earliest  lake  dwellers  of  Western  Switzerland  cul- 
tivated a  small  grained  variety  of  wheat  as  early  as 
the  stone  age.  The  Chinese  grew  wheat  2,700  B.  C, 
and  considered  it  a  direct  gift  from  Heaven.  Wheat 
is  one  of  the  species  used  in  their  annual  ceremony  of 
sowing  five  kinds  of  seeds.  Chinese  scholars  believe 
it  to  be  a  native  of  their  country. 

The  existence  of  different  names  for  wheat  in  the 
most  ancient  languages  confirms  the  belief  in  its  great 
antiquity.  It  has  been  asserted  that  wheat  has  been 
found  growing  wild  in  Western  Asia,  but  the  evidence  is 
not  conclusive.  The  Euphrates  valley  is  believed  by  De 
Candolle  to  be. the  principal  habitation  of  the  species 
in  prehistoric  times.  So  far  as  known  wheat  was  not 
grown  in  America  before  its  discovery  by  Columbus. 

Its  ease  of  cultivation;  its  adaptation  to  a  climate 
favorable  to  the  beginning  of  civilization;  its  quick 
and  abundant  return;  its  ease  of.  preparation  for  use; 
its  abundant  supply  of  nutritious  substance;  possibly 
its  rapid  improvement  under  cultivation  and  the  fact  of 
its  being  paniferous,  or  possessing  that  special  quality 
which  adapts  it  above  any  other  grain  to  the  making 
of  light  bread,  were  probably  some  of   the  reasons 

102 


WHEAT.  103 

which  caused  primitive  man  to  begin  and  continue  its 
cultivation.  In  addition,  its  wide  adaptation  to  dif- 
ferent soils  and  climates  has  made  it  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal foods  of  mankind. 

Prodaction. — The  average  wheat  production  of  the 
world  is  from  1,500  to  1,700  million  bushels  annually. 
Europe  produces  annually  about  1,200  million  bushels; 
about  3.5  bushels  per  inhabitant. 

The  largest  live  wheat  producing  countries  of 
Europe,  are,  in  order  of  importance,  France,  Russia, 
Austro-Hungary,  Spain  and  Italy.  Germany  and 
Great  Britain  were  formerly  more  important  wheat 
producers  than  at  present.  The  United  States  and 
India  are  the  only  other  large  wheat  producing  coun- 
tries. 

The  United  States  produces  a  large  surplus  of 
wheat  annually,  and  must  compete  in  the  markets  of 
the  world  with  other  nations.  Europe  is  our  foreign 
market.  She  requires  nearly  four  bushels  per  inhabi- 
tant, or  about  a  half-bushel  per  inhabitant  more  than 
she  produces. 

Each  country  of  Europe,  however,,  does  not  import 
equally  and  some  export  in  considerable  quantities. 
The  principal  importing  countries  are  Great  Britain, 
France,  Belgium,  Germany,  Italy  and  the  Nether- 
lands. The  average  total  net  import  of  wheat  of  the 
various  countries  of  Europe  for  the  ten  years,  1880  to , 
18S9,  was  203  million  bushels  annually.  Half  of  this 
import  went  to  Great  Britain.  During  the  same  ten 
years,  the  average  net  export  has  been  88  million 
bushels,  most  of  it  coming  from  Russia  and  Roumania. 

Outside  of  Europe  the  principal  wheat  exporting 
countries  are  the  United  States  and  India.  Australasia, 
Canada,  Algeria  and  Egypt  export  small  quantities. 


104         THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

The  wants  of  Great  Britain  control  the  wheat  mar- 
ket of  the  world.  Of  the  wheat  consumed  in  Great 
Britain  one- third  to  one- half  is  home  grown.  Fifty 
years  ago  only  three  per  cent  was  imported.  In  that 
time  the  price  has  fallen  thirty-five  per  cent,  and  the 
consumption  has  increased  thirty-two  per  cent  per 
inhabitant.  The  consumption  per  capita  is  given  at 
5. 5  bushels.  Other  grains  used  increase  the  quantity 
to  the  equivalent  of  ten  bushels  of  wheat  per  inhabitant. 

The  United  States  raises  the  most  wheat  of  any 
nation  on  the  globe.  The  following  presents  the  es- 
sential statistics  for  the  average  of  ten  years,  1870- 

1879,  and  1880-1889: 

1870-79.  1880-89. 

Area,  acres 25,000,000  37,000,000 

Yield,  bushels 312,000,000  450,000,000 

Value,  dollars 327,000,000         372,000,000 

^  Yalntf  per  bu.,  dollars.  !*f: 1.05  0.83 

Yield  per  acre,  bu 12.4  12.1 

Value  per  acre,  dollars 13.00  10.00 

The  yield  during  this  decade  increased  forty-four 
per  cent  over  that  of  the  previous  decade.  The  value 
of  the  crop  increased  only  fourteen  per  cent.  The 
value  per  bushel  was  twenty- two  cents  less  during 
this  decade  than  during  the  previous  one,  and  the 
value  per  acre  was  three  dollars  less.  The  yield  per 
acre  has  not  materially  decreased. 

According  to  recent  estimates  forty-two  per  cent  of 
the  wheat  grown  in  this  country  is  consumed  in  the 
county  in  which  it  is  grown.  Of  this  eleven  per  cent 
is  required  for  seed.  About  one- fourth  of  our  crop  is 
usually  available  for  export.  About  one-third  of  the 
crop,  therefore,  is  consumed  in  this  country  outside  of 
the  county  in  which  it  is  grown. 

While  wheat  is  grown  in  every  State  in  the   Union 


li^C^,    /^/l/2^;    ^^.«.^,  j'^.^^  ;  ^^e^ -^^'^/- 


WHEAT.  105 

the  greater  part  is  raised  in  the  Mississippi  Valley. 
The  progress  of  wheat-growing  is  steadily  westward. 

In  1849  the  central  line  of  production  passed 
through  Eastern  Ohio;  in  1859,  through  Eastern 
Indiana;  in  1869,  through  Eastern  Illinois;  in  1879, 
through  Central  Illinois,  and  in  1889,  the  central  line 
was  on  the  western  side  of  the  Mississippi  river.  In 
1849  only  three  per  cent  of  the  wheat  was  produced 
west  of  the  Mississippi  river.  The  fortieth  parallel 
nearly  divides  the  crop  into  northern  and  southern 
halves. 

Wheat  production  has  been  stimulated  by  three 
prominent  causes:  1.  The  possession  of  large  areas  of 
fresh  lands,  easily  brought  into  cultivation;  2.  The 
extension  of  railway  construction,  and  3.  A  period  of 
several  years  of  poor  crops  in  Western  Europe.  The 
first  cause  is  fast  disappearing,  and  the  second  is  be- 
coming less  important.  The  third  is  as  uncertain  as 
the  seasons. 

Structure. — The  wheat  plant  belongs  to  that  class 
of  plants  in  which  the  first  leaves  of  the  embryo  are 
alternate,  technically  known  as  monocotyledons.  The 
family  to  which  it  belongs  is  characterized  by  having 
hollow  stems  with  closed  joints,  alternate  leaves  with 
their  sheathes  split  open  on  the  side  opposite  the  blade. 

The  flower  of  the  wheat  has  three  stamens,  the 
anthers,  which  contain  the  pollen  or  fertilizing  ele- 
ment, being  suspended  on  thread  like  filaments.  The 
stigma,  which  receives  the  pollen  and  conveys  it  to  the 
ovary,  or  female  element,  is  in  two  parts  and  is 
feathery.  It  is  necessary  for  the  ovary  to  be  fertilized 
with  the  pollen  before  any  seeds  can  be  formed.  It 
is  believed  that  it  is  better  for  the  ovary  of  a   given 


106        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 


flower  to  receive  the  pollen  of  some  other  flower  rather 
than  its  own.  This  is  accomplished  in  the  case  of 
wheat  and  other  cereals  by  the  wind.  At  the  proper 
season,  this  pollen  may  be  seen  floating  in  the  wind 
over  the  wheat  fields. 

Whether  varieties  of  wheat  mix  by  natural  methods 
when  sown  near  together  is  one  of  iihe  disputed  que3- 
tions.  That  they  do  not  do  so  readily  seems  fairly 
well  established.     Wheat  varieties  may  be  crossed  or 

hybridized  by  conveying  the 
pollen  of  one  variety  to  the 
stigma  of  another  by  artifi- 
cial means. 

The  ovary,  stigma  and 
stamens  are  enclosed  in  two 
chafpy  parts  called  palets. 
The  parts  collectively  con- 
stitute the  flower  of  the 
wheat.  Three  or  more  of 
these  flowers  are  enclosed 
by  two  more  chaffy  and 
harder  parts  called  glumes. 
This  is  called  collectively  a  spikelet. 

These  spikelets  in  the  grass  family  are  arranged  in 
two  ways,  viz.:  On  a  more  or  less  lengthened  base, 
as  in  the  oat,  when  the  whole  head  is  called  a  panicle, 
or  joined  directly  to  the  stem  as  in  wheat,  when  the 
head  is  called  a  spike.  Several  species  of  the  grass 
family,  including  wheat,  have  the  spikelets  in  a  spike 
arranged  alternately  at  the  joints  of  a  zigzag  jointed 
stem,  the  joints  being  alternately  excavated  on  the 
side  next  the  spikelet.  The  reader  should  study 
a  head  of  wheat  in  connection  with  this  description. 


Flowek  Pabts  of  Wheat. 

(After  Gray.) 


WHEAT.     '  107 

In  the  genus  Triticum,  to  which  wheat  belongs, 
there  is  but  one  spikelet  at  each  joint  and  it  is  placed 
flatwise,  usually  on  a  single  spike.  ^  We  have  in  this 
country  some  wild  species  which  are  usuaUy  placed  in 
this  genus.  They  are  perennial.  Wheat  is  not  only 
annual  but  the  experiments  of  Lawes  and  Gilbert  in- 
dicate that  artificial  cultivation  is  essential  to  its 
growth.  Sir  John  Lawes  is  wont  to  say  that  if  man 
should  disappear  from  the  earth  wheat  would  follow 
him  in  three  years. 

The  process  of  milling  consists  in  separating  that 
portion  of  the  wheat  berry  which  is  desirable  for 
bread- making  from  the  undesirable  portion,  and  re- 
ducing it  to  an  impalpable  powder. 

The  wheat  berry  is  covered  by  a  light,  colorless, 
spongy  envelope  composed  of  cellulose,  which  is  the 
principal  ingredient  in  wood  and  straw.  The  en- 
velope is  about  three  per  cent,  of  the  entire  berry  and 
is  almost,  if  not  quite,  indigestible.  Botanically  it  is 
not  a  part  of  the  seed  proper,  but  is  equivalent  to  the 
pod  of  the  bean  or  the  shell  of  the  hickory  nut. 

Within  this  envelope  is  the  testa,  or  true  cover- 
ing of  the  seed,  which  is  finer  but  similar  in  structure, 
except  instead  of  being  colorless  its  cells  are  filled 
with  two  coloring  matters,  one  a  pale  yellow  and  the 
other  an  orange  yellow.  These  pigments  give  to  the 
berry  its  color,  which  varies  according  to  the  relative 
abundance  of  the  two.  The  testa  is  about  two  per 
cent,  of  the  berry.  It  is  the  portion  which  gives 
millers  so  much  trouble,  as  a  surprisingly  small 
amount  makes  the  flour  dark  and  the  bread  darker. 
The  two  envelopes  described  constitute  the  bran  and 
together  make  about  five  per  cent,  of  the  wheat.    Th©  . 


108        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 


IiONOITUDINAL  SECTION  OF  WHEAT  BEBBT. 

(HlKbly  magnified,) 


WHEAT.  •  109 

bran  of  commerce  contains  about  75  per  cent,  of  other 
materials;  that  is  to  say,  15  per  cent,  of  the  nutritive 
portion  of  wheat;  otherwise  bran  would  be  practically 
valueless  as  a  food  for  stock. 

Within  these  envelopes,  and  next  to  them,  is  a  row 
of  irregular,  cubical  cells.  This  row  of  cells  is  sup- 
posed to  be  simply  an  expansion  of  the  embryo  and 
has  been  called  the  embryonic  envelope.  The  cells 
are  filled  with  phosphate  of  lime,  and  a  solvent  sub- 
stance called  cerealine,  which  assists  in  germination. 

The  body  of  the  grain  or  endosperm  consists  of  large 
thin- walled  cells,  filled  mostly  with  starch  but  contain- 
ing also  gluten  and  other  albuminous  material.  This 
is  the  portion  from  which  flour  is  made  and  is  75  to 
80  per  cent,  of  the  whole  berry.  In  the  modern  pro- 
cesses of  milling,  besides  the  bran  proper,  the  germ  or 
embryo,  the  embryonic  envelope  and  seven  per  cent, 
or  more  of  the  endosperm  is  separated  from  the  re- 
maining endosperm,  the  latter  only  being  made  into 
flour.  About  70  per  bent  of  the  berry  is  made  into 
flour. 

Chemical  and  Physical  Properties.^- In 
chemical  composition  wheat  is  very  variable.  It  is 
probably  more  susceptible  in  this  respect  to  surround- 
ing conditions  than  any  other  grain. 

The  following  may  be  given  as  the  average  of  over 
300  analyses  of  American  wheat: 

Pounds 

Per  Cent.  per  ton. 

Total  dry  matter 89.46  1789.2 

Albuminoids 11.80  236.0 

Crude  fat 2.11  42.2 

Nitrogen-free  extract  (starch,  etc.) 71.89  1437.8 

Crude  fibre        1.80  36.0 

Ash 1.86  37.2 


110        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

The  spring  wheats  contain  a  somewhat  larger  per- 
centage of  albuminoids  than  the  winter  wheats.  In 
individual  instances  there  is  considerable  variation. 
Flour  made  from  the  hard  spring  wheats  is  richer  in 
albuminoids  than  the  winter  wheats.  The  lightness 
of  bread  depends  upon  the  per  cent,  of  albuminoids, 
and  it  is  for  this  reason  that,  with  the  modern  process 
of  milling,  spring  wheat  makes  the  b^st  flour. 

High  weight  is  almost  always  an  evidence  of  high 
quality,  but  not  always  of  large,  plump,  well-matured 
grains. 

The  hard  spring  wheat  of  the  Northwest,  which  is 
small  in  size,  and  not  well-motured  in  the  sense  of 
having  a  large,  plump  berry,  is  very  heavy  in  its 
weight  per  bushel;  while  the  large  plump  wheat  of 
Oregon,  which  is  very  starchy,  is  light  in  weight.  The 
weight  of  a  bushel  may  vary  from  55.5  to  65.5  pounds. 
In  the  majority  of  cases  where  trials  have  been  made 
the  weight  varies  with  the  percentage  of  albuminoids. 
Hence  we  find  wei-ght,  together  with  the  comparative 
uniformity  of  the  kernels  and  cleanliness,  fixes  the 
grade  of  wheat.  The  shape  rather  than  the  size  of 
the  kernel  affects  the  weight  per  bushel.  Richardson 
found,  as  the  result  of  nearly  400  determinations,  that 
there  were  about  an  average  of  12,000  kernels  in 
a  pound  of  wheat;  in  some  samples  there  were  less 
than  8,000,  while  in  others  24,000  kernels  to  ttie  pound. 
Obviously  one  bushel  of  seed  in  the  one  case  would 
be  equivalent  to  three-  bushels  in  the  other. 
/The  analyses  of  wheat  given  show  that  wheat  con- 
tains 10  to  11  per  cent,  of  water. 

This  represents  the  moisture  in  the  samples  as 
analyzed,  often  after  they  have  stood  in  the  dry-room 
of  the  laboratories.     What  percentage  of  water  wheat 


WHEAT.  Ill 

contains  as  it  goes  on  the  market  cannot  be  stated,  but 
it  has  been  shown  to  vary  largely  from  day  to  day 
with  the  varying  conditions  of  the  atmosphere.  In 
California,  where  the  atmosphere  inland  is  very  dry 
at  harvest,  this  subject  is  a  matter  of  considerable 
commercial  importance.  It  is  claimed  that  the  mois- 
ture that  this  California  wheat  will  absorb  during  a 
voyage  from  San  Francisco  to  Liverpool  will  some- 
times increase  its  weight  enough  to  pay  the  entire 
cost  of  the  freight.  Wheat  bought  inland  and  kept 
in  warehouses  all  the  season  would  increase  in  a  sim- 
ilar manner. 

Experiments  by  Hilgard  and  O'Neil,  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  California,  indicated  that  wheat  of  the  inland 
of  (Jalifornia  might  increase  twenty-five  per  cent  in 
weight  by  the  absorption  of  water  when  transported 
to  a  temperate  climate,  while  a  gain  of  five  to  fifteen 
per  cent  might  be  looked  for  with  absolute  certainty. 
A  difference  of  nine  per  cent  was  observed  in  twenty- 
four  hours.  Brewer  found  a  difference  of  from  five  to 
eight  per  cent  between  the  water  in  wheat  in  a  furnace 
heated  room  in  February  and  the  moist  air  of  New 
Haven  freely  circulating  in  the  same  room  in  Septem- 
ber. Richardson  found  that  two  days  were  sufficient 
to  equalize  the  moisture  in  samples  of  flcur  which 
varied  from  less  than  eight  to  over  thirteen  per  cent 
originally.  Afterward  the  water  in  the  samples 
fluctuated  with  the  humidity  of  the  air. 

Wheat  absorbs  forty  five  per  cent  of  its  weight  of 
water  in  germinating.  The  lowest  temperature  at 
which  wheat  will  germinate  is  forty-one  degrees;  the 
highest  temperature  one  hundred  and  ten  degrees; 
and  the  best  temperature  for  the  germination  of  wheat 
is  about  eighty-four  de^ees  Fahrenheit. 


CHAPTER  X. 

WHEAT. 

Climate. — The  yield  and  quality  of  wheat  and 
hence  its  successful  growth,  agriculturally  considered, 
depends  mainly  upon  these  six  conditions:  climate, 
soil,  variety,  method  of  cultivation,  liability  to  disease, 
and   attack  of  insect  enemies. 

The  quality  of  wheat  may  be  affected  by  the  cli- 
mate, as  is  evidenced  by  the  difference  between  the 
hard  spring  wheats  of  Dakota  and  the  soft  winter 
wheats  of  Washington.  Richardson  found  one  sample 
from  Dakota  to  contain  eighteen  per  cent  of  albumin- 
oids while  one  from  Washington  contained  only 
7.7  per  cent  of  albuminoids.  Differences  exist  else- 
where, but  in  a  less  marked  degree.  It  has  been 
shown  that  the  climate  of  Colorado  modifies  the  qual- 
ity of  wheat  brought  from  other  climates.  Climate 
and  soil,  however,  are  intimately  connected,  so  that  it 
may  be  laid  down  as  a  rule  that  localities  having 
widely  different  climate  and  soil  produce  their  pecu- 
liar varieties  and  modify  those  which  are  brought  to 
them.  It  is  believed  by  some  that  the  annual  renewal 
of  the  seed  from  a  desirable  and  favorable  source 
often  makes  it  possible  to  raise  cereals  where  other- 
wise the  climate  and  other  unfavorable  conditions 
would  render  their  profitable  cultivation  impossible 
through  reversion. 

According  to  the  tenth  census  of  the  United  States 
seventy  per  cent  of  the  wheat  of  the  United  States  was 
grown   where  the  average  January  temperature  was 

112 


WHEAT.  113 

below  freezing;  eighty-five  per  cent  was  grown  wheje 
the  average  July  temperature  was  between  seventy 
and  eighty  degrees  and  sixty-five  per  cent  where  the 
mean  annual  temperature  was  between  forty-five  and 
fifty- five  degrees.  We  must  be  careful  not  to  attach 
too  much  weight  to  this,  as  the  soil,  particularly  its 
ease  of  cultivation,  has  greatly  affected  the  distribu- 
tion of  wheat.  However,  although  there  are  some 
noted  exceptions,  as  California,  Egypt  and  India, 
most  of  the  wheat  of  the  world  grows  in  regions  of 
cold  winters. 

The  wheat  plant  for  its  best  development  needs  to 
have  its  early  growth  in  the  cool  part  of  the  year.  It 
is  only  early  in  its  growth,  during  cool  weather  and 
slow  growth,  that  wheat  tillers.  A  long  period  of 
growth  consequent  upon  cool  weather  gives  it  better 
opportunity  to  get  sufficient  plant  growth.  A  cool, 
prolonged  but  not  too  wet  spring  is  probably  best. 

According  to  the  investigations  of  Lawes  and  Gil- 
bert, there  is  a  nitrifying  agent  in  the  soil  which  pro- 
duces a  supply  of  nitrates  necessary  to  produce  the 
crop.  Suppose  a  maximum  crop  requires  twenty- four 
pounds  of  nitrates  besides  those  already  formed  in 
the  soil,  and  throughout  the  growing  season  four 
pounds  are  produced  per  month.  Six  months  of 
growth  would  be  necessary  to  produce  a  maximum 
crop.  If  a  warm  growing  season  should  force  the 
crop  to  maturity  in  five  months,  it  would  not  have 
enough  food  to  produce  a  full  crop.  The  loss  of  ni- 
trates during  wet  seasons  has  been  found  to  be  greater 
and  the  amount  taken  up  by  the  wheat  smaller.  On 
this  account  comparatively  dry  seasons  should  be 
favorable  for  the  production  of  large  crops  of  wheat. 


114        THE  SOILS  AND  CEOPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

Wheat  of  hot,  sunny  climates,  with  dry  weather 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  growth,  is  brighter  and 
makes  a  better  quality  of  flour  the  world  over.  The 
United  States  is  particularly  favored  in  this  respect. 

In  a  country  of  cold  winters  it  is  better  to  have 
the  ground  covered  continually  with  snow.  Alternate 
freezing  and  thawing  with  the  plant  exposed  to  the 
wind  is  very  destructive  to  wheat.  Winter  wheat 
kills  in  two  ways,  by  being  frozen  to  death  and  by 
being  heaved  out  by  alternate  freezing  and  thawing. 
When  the  soil  is  bare,  that  about  the  roots  will  reach 
nearly  the  temperature  of  the  air  above,  but  if  the 
soil  is  covered  with  a  couple  of  inches  of  snow,  the 
temperature  of  the  soil  will  be  little  if  any  below  the 
freezing  point. 

Soil  and  Manures. — The  character  of  the  soil 
affects  the  yield  more  than  the  quality  of  the  wheat. 
Light  clay  soils  are  eminently  adapted  to  wheat.  A 
large  proportion  of  the  wheat  is  grown  in  this  country 
on  what  is  known  geologically  as  drift  soil,  the  con- 
trolling reasons  being  ease  of  cultivation  and  adapta- 
tion to  the  use  of  light  machinery. 

In  the  United  States  very  little  manure,  compara- 
tively, has  been  applied  directly  to  wheat  land.  In 
many  places  wheat  is  grow:n  continuously  without 
manure.  Undoubtedly  a  change  from  this  practice^ 
must  take  place  eventually.  Exporting  over  one 
hundred  millions  bushels  annually,  besides  one-half 
the  home  consumption  going  to  the  6ities  to  be  lost, 
must  be  decreasing  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

In  many  places  wheat  forms  a  part  of  a  rotation  o2 
crops,  stable  manure  being  applied  to  the  other  crops, 
such  as  corn.     In  some  places,  although  less  frequent- 


yix^-^L.O'ii 

X4,.,aJ-*^ 

t--.-^^  <  -v^-.--' 


WHEAT.  115 

ly,  stable  manure  is  applied  directly  to  the  wheat, 
where  wheat  forms  a  part  of  the  rotation.  Clover  is 
used  in  many  places  as  a  part  of  the  rotation  and 
with  good  results.  In  some  localities,  potatoes  and 
wheat  are  grown  alternately,  large  quantities  of  ma- 
nure being  applied  to  the  potato  crop.  In  some  lo- 
calities clover  is  sown  with  the  wheat  and  then  plowed 
under  in  August,  another  crop  of  wheat  sown  and 
clover  sown  again. 

The  drilling  of  a  couple  of  hundred  pounds  of 
commercial  fertilizers  with  the  wheat  is  not  an  un- 
usual practice  in  the  Eastern  States,  and  the  quantity 
used  seems  to  be  increasing,  which  indicates  that 
farmers  believe  that  they  are  getting  profitable  re- 
turns. Commercial  fertilizers  are  comparatively 
rarely  sown  with  wheat  in  the  Western  States. 

The  Experiment  Stations  of  New  Jersey,  Penn- 
sylvania, Maryland,  Ohio,  Kentucky,  Indiana  and 
Illinois  are  among  those  which  have  made  field  tests 
with  the  various  approved  forms  of  commercial  fertil- 
izers for  the  production  of  wheat.  The  general  re- 
sult at  these  Stations  has  been  that  the  increase  in 
yield  of  wheat  produced  by  the  application  of  the 
various  forms  of  commercial  fei'tilizers  has  not  given 
a  profitable  return  for  money  invested,  at  the  price  of 
wheat  and  of  fertilizers  during  the  ten  years  1880  to 
1889.  An  increase  in  the  price  of  wheat  or  a  decrease 
in  the  price  of  fertilizers  would  tend  to  make  their 
use  profitable. 

Of  the  three  single  ingredients  usually  considered 
valuable  in  commercial  fertilizers,  phosphoric  acid 
has  generally  given  the  largest  increase,  and  potash 
the  Jeast.     A  complete  fertilizer — that  is,   one  com- 


116        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

posed  of  nitrogen,  potash  and  phosphoric  acid — has 
usually  given  the  largest  increase  but  at  a  more  than 
corresponding  cost.  Usually,  but  not  always,  barn- 
yard manure  has  given  a  large  increase  in  yield;  con- 
sidered entirely  as  a  waste  product,  it  has  been 
applied  profitably.  This  does  not  preclude  the 
possibility  that  it  may  be  more  profitably  used  on 
some  other  crops. 

That  commercial  fertilizers  have  not  been  profita- 
ble in  the  instances  given  does  not  show  that  they 
would  not  be  profitable  on  other  soils  and  under 
other  conditions,  but  the  results  indicate  that  it  would 
be  prudent  for  every  farmer  beginning  the  use  of 
commercial  fertilizers  on  wheat  to  apply  them  in  a 
limited  way  and  in  such  a  manner  as  to  make  it 
evident  whether  their  application  was  profitable  on 
his  soil. 

While  advocated  by  some,  mulching  wheat  with 
straw  or  other  material  for  the  purpose  of  winter  pro- 
tection has  not  been  generally  practiced.  The  Ohio 
Experiment  Station  has  been  testing  the  question  of 
mulching  during  the  past  decade,  and  has  found  no 
practical  benefit  from  the  use  of  a  mulch.  In  severe 
seasons  the  benefit  has  been  very  slight,  while  in  mild 
seasons  the  mulch  has  usually  been  harmful.  A 
heavy  mulch  was  more  harmful  than  a  light  one.  In 
exposed  situations  and  localities  where  there  ^  little 
■'§in5w~upon  the  ground"  a  light  muIcB^ii^  beneficial  to 
the  wheat.  But  where  there  is  considerable  snow 
and  the  temperature  more  uniform  the  mulch  is  pretty 
certain  to  do  more  injury  than  good. 

Variety. — There  are  two  cultivated  forms  of  the 
genus  Triticum.     First,  the  form  in  which  the  palets 


WHEAT.  .  117 

are  freely  removed  when  the  grain  is  threshed.  This 
is  known  as  wheat.  Second,  the  form  in  which  the 
palets  adhere  to  the  kerijel,  as  they  do  in  barley  and 
oats.  This  form  is  known  as  spelt.  According  to 
Vilmorin,  there  are  four  forms,  or,  as  some  authors 
claim,  species  of  wheat,  and  three  forms  of  spelt,  as 
follows: 

1.  Common  wheat — Triticum  vulgar e,  Villars; 
Triticum  hybernum  and  T.  cestivum,  Linn. 

2.  Turgid  or  Egyptian  wheat — Triticum  turgidum 
and  T.  compositunij  Linn. 

3.  Hard  wheat — Triticum  dummy  Desfontaines. 

4.  Polijh  wheat — Triticum  polonicum,  Linn. 

5.  Spelt — Triticum  spelta,  Linn. 

6.  Starch  wheat — Triticum  dicoccum,  Schrank; 
Triticum  amyleum,  Seringe. 

7.  One  grained  wheat — Triticum  monococcum, 
Linn. 

The  Turgid  or  Egyptian  wheat  is  known  as  the 
Wheat  of  Miracle  or  Wheat  of  Abundance,  because  of 
its  branching  spikes.  It  is  said  to  be  much  culti- 
vated in  the  valley  of  the  Nile  at  the  present  time. 
Hard  wheat  has  been  long  cultivated  in  Central 
Europe  and  Northern  Africa.  Polish  wheat  is  chiefly 
cultivated  in  Eastern  Europe  and  Northern  Africa. 
Spelt  is  not  now  as  commonly  cultivated  as  formerly. 
It  is  chiefly  cultivated  in  the  mountain  regions  of 
Europe  and  Asia.  Starch  wheat  is  cultivated  for  its 
starch  in  Switzerland.  It  is  said  to  be  especially 
hardy.  There  seems  to  be  reasonable  evidence  that 
the  different  forms  of  wheat  are  but  races  of  one  spe- 
cies, produced  by  long  cultivation. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  common  wheat  has  two  Latin 


(18   THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

names,  Triticum  hybernum  and  .Triticum  cestivum. 
Linnseus  applied  T.  hybernum  to  winter  wheat  and 
T.  cestivum  to  spring  wheat.  It  has  been  shown,  how- 
ever, by  direct  experiment,  that  winter  wheat  may  be 
changed  to  spring  wheat  and  spring  wheat  to  winter 
wheat.  M.  Mouries  sowed  winter  wheat  in  the  spring 
and  out  of  one  hmidred  plants  four  alone  ripened  seeds. 
These  were  sown  and  re- sown  and  in  three  years 
plants  were  reared  which  ripened  all  their  seeds. 
Conversely,  nearly  all  the  plants  raised  from  spring 
wheat  sown  in  the  autumn  perished  from  the  cold, 
but  a  few  were  saved  and  produced  seed.  In  three 
years  this  spring  variety  was  converted  into  a  winter 
variety.  This  is  a  striking  example  of  the  climatic 
adaptability  of  wheat.  It  shows  that  a  variety  which 
possesses  valuable  characteristics,  although  lacking 
hardiness,  may  be  worth  attempting  to  grow  until  it 
becomes  adapted  to  the  climate. 

The  variety  has  very  much  to  do  with  the  success- 
ful culture  of  wheat  in  each  individual  instance.  Ex- 
cept in  the  possible  extra  outlay  for  seed,  it  costs  no 
more  to  raise  twenty  bushels  from  a  good  variety  than 
ten  bushels  from  a  poor  variety.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  yield  is  increased  by  the  use  of  fertilizers, 
or  by  better  preparation  of  seed-bed,  the  increase  is 
made  at  some  expense,  more  or  less  considerable. 

The  question.  What  is  the  best  variety  ?  has  never 
been  answered.  There  is  no  best  variety  for  the  whole 
country.  Not  only  do  good  varieties  in  one  locality 
prove  poor  varieties  in  another,  but  often  a  variety 
which  one  year  gives  the  largest  yield  of  fifty  varieties, 
sown  the  next  year  in  the  same  locality  is  one  of  the 
poorest  yielders. 


WHEAT.  119 

Another  reason  which  makes  the  comparative  merits 
of  varieties  so  confusing  is  that  many  names  are  given 
to  the  same  variety.  It  is  not  unusual  for  old  and 
well-known  varieties  to  be  put  on  the  market  with 
high-sounding  nam«s  and  extravagant  praises.  Proba- 
bly the  re-naming  of  old  varieties  is  to  some  extent 
intentional  deception,  but  doubtless  much  of  it  is 
through  ignorance.  A  wheat  raiser  procures  fresh 
seed  from  some  source  without  knowing  the  name  of 
it,  and  finds  after  growing  it  a  year  or  two  that  it  is 
better  than  that  grown  by  his  immediate  neighbors. 
This  leads  to  a  local  name,  given  either  by  the  grower 
or  the  buyers.  The  better  the  variety  and  the  more 
extensively  it  is  grown,  the  larger  the  number  of 
names  it  is  likely  to  receive.  Different  varieties,  also, 
although  less  frequently,  sometimes  have  the  same 
name. 

There  are  varieties  which  for  a  given  locality  will 
do  better  during  a  series  of  years  than  will  others.  It 
is  of  great  importance  for  wheat  growers  to  discrimi- 
nate between  the  good  and  the  poor.  It  is  not  within 
the  scope  of  this  book  to  name  even  the  varieties  which 
are  raised  in  this  country,  and  it  would  be  impossible 
to  make  out  lists  of  desirable  varieties  for  so  large 
a  country  with  any  substantial  accuracy. 

What  is  a  variety  ?  The  following  are  some  of  the 
characteristics  which  may  be  taken  to  constitute  vari- 
ety differences:  color  of  berry,  color  of  glumes, 
glumes  bearded  or  smooth,  growth  of  the  straw,  and 
time  of  ripening.  If  grown  under  like  conditions 
probably  the  size  of  the  berry  when  the  differences  are 
marked  should  be  considered.  With  winter  wheat  the 
time  of  ripening  is  not  a  very  important  characteristic. 


120        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

The  first  three  characteristics  are  probably  the 
most  important  and  it  will  be  seen  that  a  classifica- 
tion according  to  these  three  characteristics  would 
make  eight  groups,  thus: — 

.Bearded    ^  «'"-- -^"^  I  ie^^  wh' teZ| 

'''  *■  •  •  •   I  (  Glnmes  white. .  ]  |«"y  ^.^..^-f 

Ueardless.]  ierr^  ^d    =? 

Different  varieties  coming  in  any  one  of  these 
groups  will  usually  resemble  each  other  very  closely 
and  need  to  be  subjected  to  a  rigid  test  to  determine 
their  right  to  be  called  separate  varieties.  Varieties 
with  red  berries  and  white  glumes  without  beards 
seem  to  be  the  most  common.  It  has  been  pretty 
conclusively  demonstrated  that  there  is  practically  no 
difference  in  yield  between  red  or  white,  or  bearded 
or  smooth  wheat. 

Starting  with  any  good  variety,  the  important 
thing  is  by  cultivation  and  careful  selection  of  seed  to 
keep  the  variety  from  deteriorating  and,  if  possible, 
to  improve  it.  The  evidence  is  universal  that,  for 
want  of  careful  selection  and  proper  cultivation,  any 
pure  variety  of  wheat  will  in  a  few  years  after  its  in- 
troduction become  comparatively  worthless.  It  is  a 
popular  belief  among  farmers  that  a  variety  "runs 
out,"  becomes  gradually  poorer,  when  grown  contin- 
uously on  the  same  land  or  in  the  same  locality  for  a 
number  of  years ;  and  that  a  change  of  seed  is  essen- 
tial— at  least  beneficial.  While  this  is  possible  the 
effect  of  the  change  of  seed  must  bo  slight  as  com- 
pared with  intelligent,  methodical  selection.  The 
benefit  that   a  farmer  usually  derives  from  a  change 


WHEAT.  121 

of  seed  comes  from  the  fact  that  he  buys  from  some 
one  who  has  taken  more  pains  in  growing  and  select- 
ing his  seed. 

With  wheat  very  little  selection  is  practiced  beyond 
occasionally  grading  the  wheat  and  sowing  the  larger 
grains.  While  doubtless  this  is  beneficial  it  is  not 
the  logical  method.  A  large  kernel  may  come  froin  a 
head  with  a  very  few  kernels,  while  a  small  kernel 
may  come  from  a  head  with  many  kernels  and  much 
more  weight  of  grain.  The  latter  would  be  likely  to 
produce  much  more  wheat  than  the  former.  The 
logical  method  would  be  to  use  for  seed  the  offspring 
of  that  seed  which  produced  the  largest  progeny  of 
best  quality.  If  a  plant  produces  five  heads,  each 
containing  thirty  to  forty  berries,  and  another  pro- 
duces but  one  head  containing  but  twenty  berries,  the 
seed  of  the  former  will  probably  be  more  productive 
than  the  latter.  The  well  known  law  that  like  pro- 
duces like  is  true  with  plants  as  well  as  animals. 
Whether  the  law  is  equally  available  for  purposes  of 
improvement  is  not  probably  fully  settled,  but  it  is 
much  more  available  than  is  usually  recognized. 


CHAI>T1£R  XI. 

WHEA  T. 

Culture. — The  ideal  seed-bed  for  wheat,  in  the 
opinion  of  the  majority  of  intelligent  wheat  raisers,  is 
one  that  is  compact  below,  being  pulverized  at  the 
surface  merely.  When  the  soil  is  loose  and  open 
below,  the  spaces  fill  with  water  in  the  winter  time 
and  the  freezing  and  thawing  heave  the  plants  and 
kill  them.  On  the  other  hand,  in  times  of  drouth  the 
soil  dries  out  more  completely  down  to  the  solid  earth 
below  and  below  the  mass  of  the  roots,  to  the  injury 
of  the  plant,  while,  if  the  surface  merely  is  pulverized, 
the  soil  immediately  below,  and  that  which  is  in  con- 
tact with  the  bulk  of  the  roots,  remains  moist. 

Drilling  wheat  in  the  standing  corn  is  practiced  in 
some  localities  where  there  is  a  friable  loam  soil.  In 
this  case  the  soil  has  the  proper  surface  pulverization 
from  the  cultivation  of  the  corn,  and  is  compact  be- 
low. The  wheat  is  sown  by  drawing  a  five-hoe 
drill  between  the  rows  of  corn.  Afterward,  at  the 
proper  time,  the  corn  is  husked.  In  the  winter  or 
spring,  when  the  ground  and  stalks  are  frozen,  the 
stalks  are  broken  off  by  drawing  a  heavy  drag  over 
the  surface.  In  some  cases  the  corn  is  cut  and 
shocked  before  the  proper  time  to  sow  the  wheat  and 
the  wheat  sown  with  the  five-hoe  drill  between  the 
rows  of  stubs.  This  method  makes  it  possible  to  fol- 
low corn  with  winter  wheat  and  the  expense  of  putting 
in  the  wheat  is  small.  It  is  thought  also  that  the 
stalks  are  some  protection  to  the  wheat  at  times  in 
U2 


WHEAT.  123 

preventing  the  snow  from  drifting  off  the  wheat.  It 
is  doubtful,  however,  whether  the  yield  of  wheat  is  so 
great  as  when  a  good  seed-bed  has  been  prepared  by 
plowing. 

Burning  stubble  when  wheat  follows  small  grain  is 
sometimes  advocated  because  it  is  possible  to  obtain 
a  more  compact  and  finer  seed  bed,  and  because  it 
burns  weed  seeds,  insect  enemies  and  germs  of  plant 
diseases.  Against  the  practice  it  is  urged  that  organic 
matter  and  nitrogen  are  lost  by  burning.  It  would 
seem  that  the  desirability  of  burning  the  stubble 
would  depend  upon  the  relative  importance  of  these 
various  elements  in  a  given  locality.  There  are  some 
instances  of  very  good  results  from  burning  stubble. 

It  is  generally  conceded  to  be  good  practice  to  plow 
as  early  as  practicable  after  the  previous  crop  has 
been  removed,  so  that  the  soil  may  become  compact 
before  the  seed  is  sown.  Just  before  seeding  the 
land  should  be  thoroughly  pulverized  with  some 
suitable  implement.  The  kind  of  implement  will  de- 
pend upon  the  nature  of  the  soil. 

Both  practice  and  experiment  show  that  drilling  is 
better  practice  in  seeding  winter  wheat  than  sowing 
broadcast.  The  wheat  is  more  uniformly  distributed 
.and  covered  and  is  sown  at  a  more  even  depth.  It  is 
believed  also  to  be  less  easily  winter  killed  either  by 
freezing  or  heaving.  The  drill  makes  little  furrows 
in  which  the  snow  lodges  and  is  prevented  from  be- 
ing blown  away.  The  amount  of  snow  held  in  the 
furrows  is  sufficient  to  modify  the  temperature  of  the 
soil  considerably.  The  wheat  is  less  likely  to  be 
heaved  out  from  fi*eezing  and  thawing.  The  soil  at 
the  bottom  of  the  furrow  offers  greater   resistance  to 


124        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

the  heaving  than  does  that  at  the  top  of  the  ridge. 
The  movement  of  the  soil  will  take  place  at  the  point 
of  least  resistance,  which  will  be  at  the  top  of  the 
ridge,  thus  leaving  the  plant  at  the  bottom  of  the  fur- 
row undisturbed.  Just  how  much  effect  this  has 
practically  one  year  with  another  is  not  knowa,  but  in 
some  trials  where  the  furrows  were  obliterated  by 
rolling  the  yield  was  not  materially  affected. 

The  time  of  sowing  depends,  of  course,  upon  the  lo- 
cality. It  is  possible  to  sow  later  as  we  go  south,  and 
necessary  to  sow  early  as  we  go  north.  When  sown 
too  late  the  wheat  has  not  sufficient  vitality  to  stand 
the  cold  weather.  When  sown  too  early  its  growth  is 
so  rank  and  succulent  as  to  be  injured  by  freezing. 
In  some  localities,  early  sown  wheat  is  subject  to  at- 
tack from  the  Hessian  fly.  This  may  be  avoided  by 
later  sowing,  especially  if  delayed  until  there  is  a 
slight  frost,  and  .also  by  sowing  early  some  strips  of 
wheat,  where  the  Hessian  flies  will  congregate  and 
may  be  destroyed  by  plowing  under  the  wheat. 

Neither  is  there  any  best  time  for  a  given  locality, 
as  very  much  depends  on  the  season  prior  to  and  after 
seeding.  It  may  be  said  that  as  a  general  rule, 
although  late  sowing  is  often  as  good  as  early  sowing, 
it  is  seldom  better,  while  early  sowing  is  often  better, 
than  late  sowing.  On  the  fortieth  parallel,  at  an 
altitude  of  500  to  1000  feet,  winter  wheat  should  gen- 
erally be  sown  between  the  first  and  twentieth  of  Sep- 
tember. Doubtless  the  richer  the  soil,  the  later  the 
seeding  may  be  done  with  safety,  as  the  rich  soil  would 
produce  the  growth  needed  in  a  shorter  time.  Spring 
wheat  should  be  sown  as  early  as  the  ground  can  be 
got  in  tit  condition  for  seeding. 


WHEAT.  125 

The  depth  of  sowing  will  vary  with  the  kind  of  soil, 
the  moisture  in  it  and  the  level  ness  and  firmness  of 
the  seed-bed.  It  may  be  planted  deeper  in  a  sandy 
soil  than  in  a  clay  soil.  It  is  necessary  to  plant 
deeper  in  a  dry  than  in  a  wet  soil.  An  uneven 
and  cloddy  soil  would  require  that  some  be  planted 
deeper  than  is  desirable  in  order  that  all  may  be 
covered.  From  one  to  three  inches  may  be  said  to  be 
the  extremes  at  which  wheat  should  be  sown.  It  is 
reasonably  well  established  that  the  nearer  the  seed 
approaches  the  former  depth  the  better,  under  ordinary 
circumstances. 

The  quantity  of  wheat  to  be  sown  per  acre  will  vary 
with  the  character  of  the  soil,  climate,  time  of  plant- 
iDg,  seed-bed,  size,  quality  and  variety  of  seed  and 
method  of  seeding.  If  sown  early  less  would  be  re- 
quired than  when  sown  late,  because  each  plant  would 
become  larger,  tiller  more,  and  thus  cover  more 
ground.  If  the  seed-bed  is  well  prepared  and  the 
vitality  of  the  seed  good,  a  larger  percentage  of  seeds 
will  grow  than  if  the  seed-bed  and  seed  are  poor.  A 
bushel  of  one  variety  may  contain  three  times  as 
many  kernels  as  another.  A  variety  which  tillers  pro- 
fusely pould  be  sown  thinner  than  one  which  does  not. 
If  drilled  a  less  quantity  could  be  sown  than  if  sown 
broadcast. 

The  yield  will  not  be  at  all  in  proportion  to  the 
seed  sown.  The  wheat  plant  adjusts  itself  to  its 
surroundings.  If  sown  thickly  it  tillers  but  little  and 
produces  but  few  heads  per  plant  If  sown  thinly  it 
stools  more  and  the  heads  are  larger,  often  sufficiently 
to  counterbalance  the  thin  seeding. 

In  climates  where  the  winters  are  uniformly  mild 


126        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

much  thinner  seeding  may  be  practiced  than  where 
tike  winters  are  severe.  The  fact  seems  to  be  that 
when  the  winters  are  mild  the  plant  largely  adjusts 
itself  to  its  surroundings,  so  that  it  makes  but  little 
difference  how  much  seed  is  sown,  but  if  the  winter  is 
seveire  and  the  wheat  partly  killed,  if  the  wheat  is 
sown  thickly  there  may  be  still  wheat  enough  left  to 
raise  a  fair  crop. 

The  Statistician  estimates  the  average  quantity 
of  winter  wheat  sown  as  13-8  bushels  per  acre, 
and  of  spring  wheat  1^  bushels  per  acre.  Pro- 
fessor Brewer  found  by  means  of  circular  letters  sent 
to  representative  farmers  throughout  the  country 
that  the  amount  sown  in  the  middle  Atlantic  States 
was  7  to  9  pecks,  in  the  Mississippi  and  Ohio  Valleys 
6  to  8  pecks,  and  in  California  3  to  8  pecks,  the 
smaller  amount  being  used  in  the  drier  regions. 

Winter  wheat  may  be  rolled  in  the  spring,  when 
there  is  much  heaving  of  the  soil,  in  order  to  pack  the 
soil  about  the  roots.  The  cost  of  thus  smoothing  the 
surface  may  often  be  repaid  by  the  increased  facility 
with  which  the  crop  can  be  harvested.  '  When  grass- 
seed  is  sown  with  the  grain,  rolling  should  never  be 
neglected. 

Wheat  is  sometimes  harrowed  in  the  spring  but  it 
is  a  practice  that  cannot  be  recommended.  .  The  cul- 
tivation of  wheat,  much  as  we  cultivate  corn  in  this 
country,  is  not  unusual  in  England,  although  less 
usual  than  formerly.  Cultivation  of  wheat  has  been 
tried  in  this  country  to  a  limited  extent,  but  it  has 
almost  always  been  harmful  rather  than  beneficial. 

Harvesting. — The  wheat  harvest  of  the  United 
States  begins  in  Texas  in  the  early  part  of  May  and 


WHEAT.  •  127 

ends  in  Dakota  and  Washington  in  August.  In  Cali- 
fornia the  harvest  begins  about  June  1st  and  lasts  till 
August  1st.  Everywhere  east  of  the  great  plains 
wheat  is  cut  as  soon  as,  or  a  little  before,  it  is  ripe, 
and  the  harvest  extends  on  any  one  farm  not  longer 
than  two  or  three  weeks,  the  wheat  being  cut  as  fast 
as  it  is  ready.  In  California,  where  there  is  no  dan- 
ger from  storms,  the  harvest  extends  for  many  weeks 
after  the  wheat  is  ripe,  some  of  it  standing  eveD  ten 
weeks  after  it  is  ripe  enough  to  cut. 

The  usual  practice  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  United 
States  is  to  cut  when  the  straw  begins  to  turn  yellow 
and  the  kernels  in  the  dough,  soft  enough  to  be  easily 
indented  with  the  thumb  nail  and  hard  enough  not  to 
be  easily  crushed  between  the  fingers. 

Investigations  indicate .  that  there  is  a  continuous 
increase  of  the  plant  during  its  growth- until  the  plant 
is  entirely  ripe.  There  is  a  continuous  increase  in  the 
weight  of  the  kernel  from  the  time  it  is  formed  until 
it  is  hard  and  dry.  The  increase  in  weight  of  kernel 
is  most  rapid  up  to  the  time  when  the  kernel  can  be 
crushed  between  the  thumb  and  finger.  The  increase 
seems  to  be  decided  and  of  economic  importance  up 
to  the  time  when  the  kernels  indent  but  do  not  crush 
under  the  pressure  of  the  thumb  nail.  After  that 
time  the  increase  is  slight. 

It  has  been  proven  beyond  question  that  at  the 
earlier  stages  of  seed  formation  a  considerable  trans- 
fer of  material  from  the  straw  to  the  kernel  may  occur 
after  cutting,  if  the  wheat  is  placed  in  condition  simi- 
lar to  the  shocking  and  capping  of  bound  sheaves.  So 
far  as  getting  the  maximum  yield  is  concerned,  the 
results  indicate  that  it  is  better  to  allow  the  wheat  to 


128        THE  SOILS- AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

get  nearly,  if  not  entirely,  ripe,  but  if  it  is  necessary  to 
cut  at  a  much  greener  stage,  shocking  and  capping 
would  probably  be  beneficial.  Of  course  there  is  al- 
ways danger  from  over-ripe  grain  shelling  out  in  har- 
vesting, also  danger  from  lodging. 

It  has  been  found  that,  in  general,  there  is  a  de- 
crease in  percentage  of  albuminoids,  fibre  and  ash  as 
the  wheat  becomes  ripe.  This  is  doubtless  due  to  the 
starch  or  endosperm  developing  later  in  the  growth  of 
the  wheat.  The  germ  develops  first,  and  later,  when 
the  endosperm  develops,  the  percentage  of  albuminoids 
becomes  less,  although  the  actual  amount  may  remain 
the  same,  or,  as  is  probably  the  case,  may  increase. 
The  higher  per  cent,  of  albuminoids  in  the  spring 
wheats  may  be  due  to  a  less  full  development. 

Plant  Diseases. — Wheat  is  subject  to  three  com- 
mon diseases:  rust,  stinking  smut  or  bunt  and  black 
smut. 

Bust  is  caused  by,  or  rather  is,  the  general  term  for 
several  species  of  fungi,  the  best  known  of  which  is 
called  by  botanists  Puccinia  graminis.  The  life  his- 
tory of  this  fungus  is  supposed  to  be  about  as  follows: 
Certain  forms  of  the  plant  grow  in  the  leaves  of  the 
barbary  plants  and  perhaps  other  plants.  On  the 
leaves  of  the  barbary  plant  there  appears  in  the  spring 
certain  orange- colored  spots.  These  spots  are  com- 
posed of  many  spores  which,  getting  upon  the  leaves 
of  the  wheat,  in  some  way  not  well  understood,  enter 
through  the  breathing  pores.  The  spores  produce 
microscopic  plants  which  grow  within  the  wheat  plant 
and  upon  its  substance.  A  wheat  plant  infected  with 
the  rust  plant  has  not  only  to  support  itself  but  also 
to  support  the  rust  plant.     This  it  is  more  or  less  un- 


WHEAT. 


129 


able  to  do  and  the  result  is  a  lessened  yield  of  wheat, 

very  much  in  proportion  to  the  vigor  of  the  rust  plant. 

Anything  which  will  favor  the  growth  of  the  wheat, 

without  favoring  the    growth   of   the   rust    plant   in 


Red  rust  spores  of  wheat 
rust. 


W^''w: 


m 


m 


Black  rust  spore  of  wheat 
rnst. 


a  corresponding  degree,  enables  the  wheat  plant  to 
resist  the  ravages  of  the  rust  plant. 

About  the  time  the  wheat  is  in  the  milk,  elongated, 
orange  colored  spots  appear  upon  the  leaves  and  stems 


130        THE  SOILS  .\ND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

of  the  wheat.  This  is  the  red  rust  of  wheat  and  other 
cereals.  These  spots  are  one  of  the  fruiting  stages 
and  are  composed  of  spores  (Uredspores)  \^hich  repro- 
duce themselves  quickly,  thus  spreading  the  disease 
rapidly.  About  the  time  the  kernels  begin  to  harden 
or  in  about  two  weeks  from,  the  time  the  red  rust  ap- 
pears, long  black  lines  appear  upon  the  leaves  and 
stem.  This  is  the  black  rust.  These  lines  are  com- 
posed of  spores  (Teleutospores)  which  live  over  winter 
and  convey  the  disease  to  the  barbary  bushes.  Red 
and  black  rust  are  different  fruiting  stages  of  the  same 
plant.  The  red  rust  spores  can  produce  the  rust 
plant  in  the  wheat  directly  but  have  not  generally 
been  supposed  to  stand  freezing  weather.  The  black 
rust  spores  live  over  winter  but  have  not  generally 
been  supposed  to  cause  the  disease  directly. 

From  this  brief  history  it  would  seem  that  in  order 
to  prevent  the  disease  it  would  only  be  necessary  to 
eradicate  the  barbary  bushes,  upon  which  appear  the 
first  stage  of  the  disease.  This  has  been  done  in 
many  places  in  England,  where  stringent  laws  on  the 
subject  have  been  enacted.  On  the  other  hand,  how- 
ever, there  are,  without  doubt,  in  this  country  places 
where  for  a  radius  of  fifty  miles  a  barbary  bush  never 
grew  and  yet  wheat  and  other  cereals  rust.  It  seems 
probable  that  there  are  other  plants  upon  which  the 
first  stages  develop — perhaps  common  weeds — or  that 
it  is  not  necessary  for  the  plant  to  go  through  always 
all  the  stages  of  its'  development. 

There  is  no  knov/n  remedy  against  the  disease. 
Moist,  damp  weather  causing  succulent  growth  when 
the  wheat  is  developing  the  kernel,  seems  to  be  favor- 
able  to  the  growth  of  the  rust.     Damp  weather  is, 


WHEAT. 


131 


doubtless,  favorable  to  the  growth  and  distribution  of 
the  red  spores,  thus  augmenting  the  trouble  where 
it  already  exists.  There  is  no  such  thing  as  a  rust 
proof  variety  of  wheat.     Although  in  a  given  season 


Loose  Smut  of  Wheat. 


Smut  of  Oats. 


some  varieties  rust  more  than  others  it  cannot  be 
said  that  the  same  will  be  true  of  the  same  varieties 
another  year. 

The  wheat  plant  is  infected  by  the  rust  after  the 


132        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

wheat  germinates.  The  seed  is  not  infected,  and  no 
treatment  of  it  would  be  of  any  avail. 

Black,  or  loose  smut,  is  a  disease  afPecting  the  ker- 
nel of  wheat  and  other  cereals  and  is  caused  by  a 
aicroscopic  plant  of  a  somewhat  different  nature  from 
rust,  known  as  Ustilago  Tritici. 

In  black  smut  the  whole  kernel  and  even  the  chaffy 
parts  are  reduced  to  a  black  powder,  as  is  commonly 
seen  in  oats.  The  black  powder  is  the  fruiting  stage 
of  the  smut  and  is  composed  of  myriads  of  spores. 
These  spores  are  blown  about  by  the  wind  and  fall  on 
the  ground,  when  they  are  ready  to  infect  a  succeed- 
ing crop.  More  or  less  remain  sticking  to  the  unin- 
fected ben-ies,  which  when  the  seed  is  sown  causes 
the  disease  again. 

The  remedy  is  obvious  and  complete.  Sow  on 
ground  not  previously  infected  and  sow  seed  which 
has  not  come  in  contact  with  the  smut,  or  sow  with 
seed  on  which  the  smut  has  been  killed. 

The  same  methods  which  are  employed  in  purify- 
ing smutty  grains,  in  the  case  of  stinking  smut,  given 
below,  are  recommended  by  some  experimenters  for 
this  form  of  smut,  but  their  efficacy  is  denied  by 
others. 

Stinking  smut  or  bunt  is  caused  by  either  of 
two  fungi,  Tilletia  foetena  and  T.  tritici,  some- 
what related  to  the  loose  smut  above  described. 
This  form  of  smut  instead  of  reducing  the  berry  to  a 
powder  and  blowing  about  is  retained  within  the  coat 
of  the  berry,  often  through  all  the  processes  of  har- 
vesting and  marketing. 

The  infected  kernels  when  ripe  are  more  or  less 
swollen  and  of  a  brownish  color.     As  they  are  larger 


WHEAT. 


133 


Stinking  Smitt  of  Wheat. 


134  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

than  the  normal  kernels  of  wheat  they  make  the  head 
somewhat  larger  in  diameter,  and  the  kernels  can  be 
seen  more  plainly.  The  kernels  are  filled  with  a 
rather  dull,  brownish  powder,  which  has  a  very  dis- 
agreeable and  penetrating  odor. 

The  disease  is  spread  by  the  use  of  smutted  seed 
and  is  to  be  prevented  by  sowing  on  clean  ground 
and  with  seed  free  from  smut  spores. 

The  infected  seed  may  be  practically  if  not  entirely 
freed  from  the  disease.  The  methods  used  consist  in 
soaking  the  seed  in  certain  solutions,  or  simply  in  hot 
water.  The  most  common  solutions  are  a  saturated 
solution  of  common  salt  and  a  five  per  cent  solution 
of  copper  sulphate.  The  wheat  should  be  placed  in 
sacks  or  baskets  and  these  put  into  the  solution  and 
allowed  to  stand  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  hours,  when 
the  wheat  should  be  spread  out  to  dry. 

More  recently  the  Danish  investigator,  Jensen,  has 
introduced  the  method  of  soaking  the  wheat  in  water 
at  the  temperature  of  from  127  to  133  degrees 
Fahrenheit  for  five  minutes.  American  experimenters 
recommend  fifteen  minutes. 


CHAPTEE  XII. 

INDIAN  CORN. , 

Hi8tory.--Ifiiiiarufiomj^>9r  maize,  is  pretty  cer- 
tainly of  American  origin.  It  has  been  introduced 
icto  Europe,  Asia  and  Africa  since  the  discovery  of 
America.  After  its  introduction  into  the  old  conti- 
nent it  spread  very  rapidly  across  Northern  Africa 
and  Southern  Europe  and  across  Asia  into  China. 
The  rapidity  with  which  it  spread  gave  rise  to  disputes 
as  to  its  origin  and  considerable  confusion  as  to  its 
name. 

It  has  been  known  by  the  following  curious  names 
in  Europe :  Turkish  corn,  Italian  corn,  Roman  wheat, 
Sicilian  wheat,  Indian  wheat,  Spanish  wheat,  Barbary 
wheat,  Guinea  and  Egyptian  wheat.  These  names 
were  given  it  in  various  places  on  account  of  the 
country  in  which  it  was  supposed  to  have  originated. 
It  simply  indicates  the  country  from  which  and 
through  which  it  was  introduced.  The  names,  with 
the  exception  of  Indian,  are  those  of  places  bordering 
on  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  It  seems  to  indicate  that 
Indian  com  was  brought  from  America  in  vessels 
which  sailed  into  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  landed 
in  the  various  countries  indicated.  The  climate  on 
both  sides  of  the  Mediterranean  is  fairly  well  adapted 
to  the  growth  of  Indian  corn.  The  rapid  introduc- 
tion into  these  countries  of  so  striking  a  plant  and  its 
spread  therefrom  is  not  a  matter  of  surprise. 

The  word  "corn"  is  used  in  Europe  with  the  signifi- 
cation that  the  word  "grain"  is  used  in  America.  All 
135 


1/ 


136        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

the  cereal  grains  in  the  former  countries  are  called 

corn,  and  Indian  corn  is  called  maize. 

/^  The  records  of  the  early  voyagers  prove  that    In- 

i         dian  corn  was'  cultivated  on  the  American  continent 

1         from  Maine  to  Chili  at  the  time  of  its  discovery.     It 

\        was  then  the  great  bread  plant  of  the  New  World. 

j        Numerous  varieties  of  corn  have  been  found  in  the 

/        ancient   tombs   of    Mexico,  Peru   and   New  Mexico. 

/         These  monuments  are  supposed  to  be  two  thousand 

years  old.  As  there  were  many  varieties  at  this  time, 

\        the  cultivation  of  corn  must  have  been  considerably 

\       more  ancient,  although  not  necessarily  so  ancient  as 

\      that  of  wheat.     There  was  a  semi-civilized'  race    of 

I      people  in  Peru,  Mexico  and  even  in  New  Mexico,  who 

/       made  considerable  use  of  Indian  corn,  using  it  boiled 

j       and  roasted  when  green,  and  grinding  it  and  making 

\      it  into  bread  when  ripe. 

^  Indian  corn  was  the  salvation  of  many  of  the  early 
colonies,  preventing  the  colonists  and  their  stock  from 
starving.  The  tame  grasses  had  not  been  introduced, 
so  that  besides  corn  stover  their  stock  had  nothing 
but  salt  marsh  hay. 

The  early  settlers  learned  the  cultivation  of  corn 
from  the  Indians.  The  James  River  settlers,  under 
the  tuition  of  the  Indians,  began  to  raise  corn  in  1608, 
and  within  three  years  they  appeared  to  have  as  many 
as  thirty  acres  under  cultivation.  The  pilgrims 
found  it  in  cultivation  by  the  Indians  on  their  arrival 
at  Plymouth,  and  began  its  cultivation  in  1621,  ma- 
nuring as  the  Indians  did  with  ii.sh. 

"According  to  the  manner  of  the  Indians  we  ma- 
nured  our  ground  with    herrings,    or  rather   shads, 


I 


INDIAN  COEN.  137 

which  we  have  iu  great  abundance  and  take  with  ease 
at  our  doors. 

You  may  see  in  one  township  a  hundred  acres  to- 
gether set  with  these  fish,  every  acre  taking  a  thous- 
and of  them,  and  an  acre  thus  dressed  will  produce 
and  yield  as  much  corn  as  three  acres  without  fish." 
In  the  Jamestown  settlement  they  planted  pumpkins 
and  melons  in  the  hill  with  the  corn. 

No  wild  type  of  the  corn  is  known,  so  that  its  origin 
is  as  much  unknown  as  that  of  wheat.  Some  have 
contended  that  the  pod  com,  in  which  each  kernel  is 
covered  with  a  husk,  was  the  original  type  of  corn. 
It  has  been  suggested  that  the  original  type  of  com 
produced  the  kernels  in  the  tassel  as  is  sometimes 
seen,  especially  in  suckers.  The  pod  corn  has  a  very 
marked  tendency  to  produce  kernels  and  fairly  well 
formed  ears  in  the  tassel.  The  transition  from  ker- 
Dels  in  the  tassels,  each  covered  with  a  husk,  to  ker- 
nels on  an  ear  without  husks  on  each  kernel,  is  not  dif- 
ficult to  imagine. 

Production. — The  Indian  corn  production  of  the 
world  is  not  accurately  known,  but  it  is  probably  2,800 
to  3,000  million  bushels,  or  about  one -half  more  than 
that  of  wheat.  Of  this  quantity  the  American  conti- 
nents raise  three-fourths  to  four-fifths.  Europe  raises 
most  of  the  remainder.  There  are  five  states  in  this 
country  each  of  which  raises  more  than  any  nation  of 
the  eastern  continent.  The  largest  corn- producing 
nations  of  Europe  are  Austro- Hungary,  Italy  and 
Russia.  Other  corn-producing  countries  are  France, 
Spain,  Portugal,  Roumania,  Algeria,  Australia,  Mex- 
ico and  Canada.  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  raise  no 
Indian  corn,  except  occasionally  in  gardens  for  table 


138        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM, 

use.     There  is   not  enough  heat  and  sunshine  during 
the  growing  season  to  mature  the  crop. 

In  the  United  States  the  corn  crop  occupies  one- 
third  the  tillage  area.  There  are  41  acres  of  corn 
raised  for  each  1,000  acres  of  superficial  area  as 
figainst  20  acres  of  wheat. 

The  average  annual  production  of  Indian  corn  in 
the  United  States  for  ten  years,  1870-79,  and  for  ten 
years,  1880-89,  is  given  below: 

1870-9.  1880-9. 

Area,  acres 44,000,000  71,000,000 

Yield,  bushels 1,184,000,000        1,703,000,000 

Value,  dollars  505,000,000  669,000,000 

Value  per  bushel,  doliars 0.43  0.39 

Yield  per  acre,  bushels 27.1  24.1 

Value  per  acre,  dollars 11.54  9.48 

It  is  a  curious  fact  that  the  increase  in  yield  of  corn 
during  the  past  decade  over  that  of  the  previous  one 
has  been  in  the  same  ratio  as  that  of  wheat;  namely, 
44  per  cent,  and  that  the  total  value  of  the  crops  has 
increased  in  nearly  the  same  ratio  as  that  of  wheat,  be- 
ing but  a  fraction  of  a  per  cent  less;  namely,  13.3  per 
cent.  The  value  per  bushel  has  decreased  four 
cents,  and  the  yield  per  acre  has  decreased  three 
bushels.  The  average  gross  value  of  an  acre  of  corn 
has  been  less  during  both  decades  than  that  of  wheat; 
while  the  production  of  wheat  has  increased  between 
five  and  six  times  during  the  past  fifty  years,  corn  has 
increased  between  four  and  five  times  during  the  same 
interval. 

The  seven  states — Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Iowa, 
Missouri,  Kansas  and  Nebraska,  produce  about  two- 
thirds  the  crop  of  the  United  States,  and  are  known 
as  the  corn  surplus  states,  because  they  are  practically 


if  a-   (^  <^^  -^^^ 


INDIAN  CORN.  139 

the  only  states  which  supply  the  commercial  centers 
with  com.  In  most  of  the  other  states  the  com  is 
largely  consumed  where  raised  and  need  not  be  taken 
into  consideration  in  the  commerce  of  this  crop,  except 
as  these  states  need  more  or  less  from  the  surplus 
states    for  consumption. 

Very  little,  comparatively,  of  the  corn  raised  in  the 
United  States  is  exported.  Since  1870  the  export 
has  varied  from  1  to  6.5  per  cent  and  has  averaged 
about  four  per  cent.  In  1889,  up  to  that  time,  the 
year  of  our  greatest  crop,  it  was  about  five  per  cent. 
This  very  small  proportion  amounted  to  more  than 
100  million  bushels. 

The  amount  required  for  consumption  is  a  very 
variable  quantity,  depending  on  price,  other  and 
cheaper  feeding  materials  being  largely  used  when 
the  price  is  high.  The  average  consumption  for  ten 
years  past  has  been  about  1,600  million  bushels,  or 
28  bushels  per  head  of  population.  This  is  the  heavi- 
est rate  of  consumption  of  any  cereal  by  any  people 
in  the  world.  It  is  nearly  twice  as  much,  according 
to  population,  as  the  consumption  of  all  the  cereals 
in  Europe. 

The  quantity  of  corn  stover  or  stalks  raised  in  the 
United  States  is  never  even  approximately  ascertained 
by  the  gatherers  of  crop  statistics.  The  yield  has  been 
estimated  from  experimental  evidence  at  about  one 
and  one-third  pound  of  corn  stalks  for  each  pound  of 
grain  produced.  On  this  basis  there  has  been  raised 
annually  during,  ten  years,  1880-89,  51  million  tons  of 
corn  stover.  The  average  annual  production  of  hay 
during  the  same  time  has  been  about  4^  million  tons. 

Vs^- — The  chief  use  of  the  Indian  corn  crop  is  as 


140        THE  SOILS  AND  CKOPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

food  for  stock.  It  is,  in  connection  with  grass,  the 
^reat  pork  and  beef  producing  material  of  the  United 
States.  The  fact  that  five-sixths  of  the  crop  is  con- 
sumed within  the  county  in  which  it  is  raised  indicates 
that  it  is  largely  used  for  this  purpose.  Sir  John  B. 
Lawes  once  said  that  the  natural  food  of  the  civilized 
hog  was  barley  meal.  If  he  had  lived  in  America  he 
would  have  said  that  ear-corn  was  the  natural  food  of 
the  civilized  hog.  The  wonderful  development  of  our 
pork  industry  is  directly  related  to  our  corn  crop. 
For  the  production  of  pork  there  is  no  single  stock 
food  equal  to  Indian  corn. 

While  of  secondary  importance  a  considerable 
quantity  of  corn  is  used  in  the  aggregate  as  food  for 
man.  Corn  bread  and  hominy  are  common  articles  of 
food,  especially  among  the  colored  population  of  the 
South. 

The  ratio  of  corn  to  wheat  is  greater  in  the  South 
than  in  the  North  and  there  it  makes  a  very  consider- 
able part  of  the  diet  of  the  colored  people.  Corn  is 
suited  to  primitive  methods.  It  can  be  ground  for 
the  purpose  of  making  corn  bread  by  very  simple  ma- 
chinery, and  hominy  is  made  by  soaking  the  corn  in 
the  lye  of  wood  ashes,  which  removes  the  outer  coat. 

Some  attempts  have  been  made  to  bring  Indian 
corn  into  more  general  use,  especially  among  Eu- 
ropeans, by  preparing  a  variety  of  attractive  dishes 
from  it.  At  present,  however,  it  is  used  there  as  a 
human  food  only  in  limited  quantities. 

Corn  preserved  in  its  green  state  has  become  •an 
article  of  considerable  importance.  There«are  exten- 
sive canning  establishments  in  various  parts  of  the 
country  which  use  in  the  aggregate  millions  of  bushels 


£^^^^      IC^     {2^-^c.<«^^ 


INDIAN  CORN.  Ul 

of  corn,  mostly  of  the  larger  varieties  of  sweet  corn. 
Glucose,  starch,  alcohol,  whisky  and  malt  liquors  are 
also  made  from  Indian  corn. 

Formerly  but  very  little  use  was  made  of  the  corn 
stalks  other  than  to  allow  the  cattle  to  roam  in  the 
fields  after  the  corn  was  husked,  and  eat  the  ears  which 
were  missed  and  a  few  of  the  leaves.  To-day  a 
large  part  of  the  51,000,000  tons  of  corn-stalks  still  go 
to  waste.  Their  use  is  increasing,  however,  either  as 
cured  fodder  or  as  ensilage. 

Structure. — Indian  corn,  or  maize,  known  botanic- 
ally  as  Zea  mats,  belongs  to  the  same  family  as  wheat, 
oats,  barley,  timothy,  etc.,  namely:  the  grass  family. 
It  is  distinguished  from  most  of  the  other  plants  of 
this  family  by  its  solid  or  pith-filled  stems  or  stalks,  by 
having  the  ovaries  or  female  part  of  the  tlower  on  the 
side  of  the  stem,  and  by  its  larger  growth.  The  tassel 
bears  the  pollen  or  male  part  of  the  flower.  The 
ovaries  are  arranged  in  pairs  on  the  cob  which,  upon 
being  fertilized  by  the  pollen,  develop  into  kernels. 
These  pairs  of  ovaries  are  fertilized  with  such  certainty 
that  under  normal  conditions  an  odd  number  of  rows 
never  result.  There  are  always  8,  10,  12,  14,  etc., 
rows  and  never  9,  11,  13,  15,  etc.,  rows. 

Corn,  like  wheat,  is  wind  fertilized:  that  is,  the 
wind  carries  the  pollen  from  the  tassel  to  the  silks 
(pistils)  of  the  ear,  frequently  to  ears  of  different 
stalks  than  that  producing  the  pollen,  so  that  the  corn 
is  naturally  freely  cross-fertilized.  The  pollen  falling 
upon  the  silks,  which  is  sometimes  as  much  as  a  foot 
long,  must,  it  is  believed,  grow  down  through  the  silk 
until  it  reaches  the  ovary  before  the  ovary  can  develop 
into  a  kernel;  at  least  one  pollen  grain,  it  is  believed, 


U^        tHE  SOILS  AND  CKOPS  0%'  THE  i^AllM, 


must  grow  down  the  length  of  each  ovary  that  pro- 
duces a  kernel.  Under  the  circumstances  it  is  sur- 
prising that  there  are  so  few  undeveloped  ears. 

The  great  quantity  of  pollen  produced,  and  the  ease 
with  which  it  is  carried  in  the  wind,  accounts  for  the 
readiness  with  which  different  varieties  are  cross- 
fertilized,  or,  as 
we  say,  mixed. 
In  some  cases  the 
effect  of  the  cur- 
rent cross  is  ap- 
parent; that  is, 
the  pollen  of  one 
variety  so  affects 
the  ovary  of  the 
other  variety  as 
to  be  plainly  visi- 
ble in  the  devel- 
oped kernel.  The 
color  is  often  af- 
fected when  yellow  and  white  varieties  are  crossed. 
Where  sweet  corn  is  crossed  with  other  varieties 
the  current  cross  usually  shows  variation  from 
the  female  type,  the  result  often  being  unlike 
either  parent.  The  general  rule,  however,  is  that  the 
current  cross  causes  but  little,  if  any,  variation  from 
the  female  parent  or  variety  producing  the  ear.  Corn 
raised  from  the  result  of  the  current  cross  generally 
shows  variation  from  the  female  parent.  In  some 
cases  the  variations  are  striking. 

On  account  of  the  ease  with  which  varieties  cross 
it  is  difficult  to  grow  several  varieties  on  one  farm,  or 
in  one  neighborhood,  and  keep  the  varieties  pure.     It 


Eight  Rowed. 


INDIAN  CORN. 


113 


is  on  this  account,  probably,  that  the  corn  of  a  given 
neighborhood  tends  to  assume  a  common  type.  It  is 
probable  that  the  different  plants  of  the  same  variety 
in  a  field  cross  each  other  freely,  and  the  laws  of 
breeding  indicate  that  this  is  desirable.  It  has  been 
proved,  however,  that  the  corn  plant  may  be  fertilized 
with  its  own  pollen  and  produce  a  well  developed  ear. 
Physical  Structure. — The   physical    structure 


Thiety  Rowed. 
both  of  the  whole  plant  and  of  the  kernel  is  the  most 
variable  of  our  cereals.  The  plant  may  vary  from 
two  to  twenty  feet  in  height;  a  variation  of  from  six 
to  twelve  feet  is  not  uncommon.  Along  the  Missis- 
sippi river,  south  of  the  40th  parallel,  it  is  not  un- 
usual to  see  corn  growing  on  which  the  ears  are  so 
high  that  a  man  of  ordinary  height  can  barely  reach 
them,  and  some  ears  cannot  be  reached.  In  the 
northern  latitudes  of  the  United  States,   as  in  New 


114        THE  SOILS  AND  CHOPS  OF  THE  FARM 


England,   much  corn  grows  so  low  as  to  make  it  nec- 
essary to  stoop  to  reach  the  ears. 

The  ears  may  vary  from  one-half  an  inch  to  sixteen 
inches  long  and  may  have  from  six  to  forty  rows.  A 
variation  of  from  four  to  twelve  inches  in  length  and 
from  eight  to  twenty- four  rows  is  not  uncommon. 

Chemical    Composition.  —  The 
chemical   composition    of   Indian  corn 
varies  but    little.       From    a  chemical 
standpoint,  at  least,  there  is  no  evidence 
that  yellow  corn  is  better  than  white,  or 
vice  versa,  or  that  flint  and  dent  corn 
are  unequal  in  quality.       Sweet   corn 
has   more   protein    and    fat    and    less 
starchy  substance  than  the  flints  and 
dents.      There   are   no  exact  data  that 
show    any    difference   in   the   feeding 
value  of  white  and  yellow  corn  or  dent 
and  flint  corn.      From  its  composition 
it  would  appear  that  sweet  corn  is    a 
superior   food  to    either,   but,   as  usu- 
ally grown,  the  yield   is   so 
much  less  and  the  difficulty 
of  properly  curing  and  stor- 
ing it  makes  it  less  desirable 
KuBAL  Thoeough-     dwabf    as  a  stock  food. 

BEED  FLINT.  GOLDEN.  .    . 

Showing  variation  in  length  of       The  average  composition 
ears,  14  natural  size.  of  Indian    com    as    deter- 

mined by  American  analyses  ia  about  as  follows: 

Percent  Pounds  in 
Pounds  in  TOO.    a  ton. 

Water 10.46  209.2 

Albaminoids 10.56  211.2 

Crndefat 5.45  109.0 

Starch,  etc 69.90  1398.0 

Fibre     2.09  41.0 

Ash 1.54  30.0 


INDIAN  CORN.  U5 

Flint  corn  contains  less  fibre  than  dent  corn.  The 
hardness  of  flint  corn  is  due,  as  will  be  hereafter 
shown,  to  the  denseness  of  the  starch  grains  and  not 
to  the  greater  proportion  of  fibre. 

The  per  cent  of  water  in  corn  is  extremely  vari- 
able, being  the  only  ingredient  which  varies  suf- 
ficiently to  be  of  practical  moment.  When  corn  has 
dried  for  a  year  in  a  crib  it  will  contain  under  ordin- 
ary conditions  from  10  to  11  per  cent  of  water.  But 
as  it  is  husked  it  contains  very  much  more. 

For  example,  the  Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  found,  during  1888,  1889  and  1890,  the  aver- 
age per  cent  of  water  in  varieties  of  different  maturities 
to  be  as  follows: 

No.  of  varie-    Ave.  per  cent 
ties  tested.  of  water. 

Early  maturing  varieties 44  17.1 

Medium  maturing  varieties 103  21.3 

Late  maturing  varieties 45  26.4 

Non -maturing  varieties 23  36.8 

On  this  basis,  1,000  bushels  of  medium  maturing 
corn  would  lose,  upon  becoming  thoroughly  air- dried, 
a  weight  of  water  equivalent  to  one  hundred  and  fif- 
teen bushels  of  shelled  corn.  If  this  1,000  bushels 
of  shelled  corn  could  be  sold  for  fifty  cents  when 
gathered,  it  would  be  necessary  to  get  fifty- seven  cents 
a  bushel  when  thoroughly  air- dry  in  order  to  get  the 
same  amount  for  it. 

Different  varieties  vary  greatly  in  regard  to  the 
percentage  of  moisture  which  they  contain.  Two 
varieties  of  maturing  corn  have  been  grown  the 
same  season  which  contained  16  and  34  per  cent  of 
water  respectively.  In  the  former  case  1,000  bushels 
of  shelled  com  when  husked  would  make  945  bushels 


146        l^HE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

when  air-dry,  while  in  the  latter  case  1,000  bushels 
would  make  only  740  bushels  when  air- dry.  In  the 
first  it  would  take  70  pounds  of  ears  as  husked  to 
make  a  bushel  of  air- dry  shelled  corn,  while  in  the 
last  instance  it  would  take  97  pounds  of  ears  to  make 
a  bushel  of  air- dry  corn.  The  weight  of  corn  as 
husked  does  not,  therefore,  indicate  accurately  its  food 
value. 


CHAPTER  Xin. 

INDIAN  CORN. 

Varieties. — The  structure  of  the  corn  kernel  is  in 
general  like  that  of  the  wheat  kernel.  There  is  the 
outer  covering  which  corresponds  to  the  pod  of  the 
pea  or  edible  part  of  the  cherry.  Inside  there  is  the 
testa  or  true  seed  coat,  which  contains  the  coloring 
matter  and  gives  the  kernel  its  color.  Inside  the 
testa  is  the  row  of  irregular  cubical  cells,  the  so-called 
embryonic  envelope.  These  cells  are  not  so  large  as 
in  the  wheat.  Inside  this  row  of  cells  is  the  germ  or 
embryo  and  the  endosperm.  The  endosperm  consists 
of  thin  walled  cells  of  cellulose  packed  full  of  starch 
grains  and  very  little  nitrogenous  material.  In 
sweet  corn,  instead  of  the  cells  of  the  endosperm  be- 
ing packed  full  of  starch  grains,  the  latter  are 
changed  to  glucose,  and  the  shrinking  caused  by  the 
transformation  makes  the  sweet  corn  kernel  wrinkled. 

Apart  from  pod  corn,  there  are  five  types  or  classes 
of  Indian  corn.  The  differences  in  these  types  are 
variations  in  the  shape  of  the  kernel  and  in  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  starch  cells  of  the  endosperm,  ex- 
cept in  the  sweet  corn,  where,  as  just  explained,  it  is  a 
modification  of  structure. 

If  a  kernel  of  dent  corn  is  split  open  through  its 
longest  two  diameters,  the  endosperm  will  be  seen  to 
consist  of  two  parts.  In  the  central  part,  the 
endosperm  will  appear  white,  while  on  each  side  it  is 
glossy.  An  examination  with  a  microscope  will  show 
the  structure  to  be  the  same  in  both.     The  difference 

147 


U8        THE  SOILS  AND  CEOPS  OF  THE  FAllM. 


INDIAN  CORN.  149 

is  due  to  difference  in  compactness  of  the  starch 
grains,  just  as  the  more  compact  crystals  of  ice  pro- 
duce a  glossy  appearance,  while  the  crystals  of  snow, 
being  less  compact  and  containing  more  air,  more 
perfectly  reflect  the  light,  and  thus  produce  a  white 
appearance. 

Dr.  Sturtevant  first  pointed  out  the  relation  between 
the  interior  arrangement  of  the  kernels  and  the  types 
of  corn,  which  he  called  agricultural  species,  and  gave 
Latin  names  to  them.  He  has  not  been  followed  by 
other  writers. 

The  types  of  corn  are  as  follows : 

1.  Dent  corn  is  that  type  in  which  the  split  kernel 
shows  the  germ,  the  glossy  starch  on  each  side  and 
the  white  starch  extending  to  the  top  of  the  ker- 
nel. The  kernel  is  indented  on  the  top,  evidently 
because  the  softer  starch  shrinks  in  the  center,  while 
the  denser  starch  on  the  sides  holds  the  sides  in  a 
straight  line.  The  kernels  of  dent  corn  are  more  or 
less  wedge-shaped. 

2.  Flint  corn  is  that  type  in  which  the  split  kernel 
shows  the  germ,  the  white  starch  and  the  glossy 
starch  surrounding.  The  surrounding  dense  starch 
prevents  the  kernels  from  indenting.  The  kernels 
are  hard,  smooth  and  more  or  less  oval. 

3.  Pop  corn  is  that  type  in  which  all,  or  almost  all, 
the  endosperm  or  starch  is  glossy.  The  kernel  is 
an  elongated  oval  in  outline  and  extremely  hard. 

4.  Soft  corn  is  that  type  in  which  the  endosperm 
is  entirely  white.  The  shape  of  the  kernel  is  similar 
to  that  of  the  flint  corn,  and  the  starch  grains  in  the 
endospcriii  being  loosely  arranged  the  kernel  is  easily 
crushed. 


150        THE  SOILS  AND  CEOPS  OF  THE  FARM. 


Types  of  Indian  Corn. 


INDIAN  COEN. 


151 


LINOlS   YELLOW 


RED   RIVER 


Dent. 


WHITE   PEARL 


Sweet. 
Types  op  Indian  Cobn. 


152        THE  SOILS  A.ND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM, 

5.  Sweet  corn  is  that  type  in  which  the  endosperm 
is  translucent  and  horny  in  appearance,  the  starch 
having  been  more  or  less  reduced  to  glucose.  The 
kernels  are  wedge-shaped  and  usually  very  much 
wrinkled. 

Almost  all  the  field  corn  of  the  United  States,  com- 
paratively speaking,  is  of  the  dent  type.  Flint  corn 
requires  a  smaller  number  of  days  to  mature  a  crop 
and  hence  it  is  used  in  the  more  northern  latitudes 
and  at  higher  altitudes.  It  is  the  common  field  crop 
of  New  England.  Each  of  these  types  has  its  place, 
but  wherever  the  common  varieties  of  dent  corn  will 
ripen  flint  corn  is  not  usually  desirable. 

For  example,  at  the  Pennsylvania  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station  eleven  varieties  of  flint  corn  and  fif- 
teen varieties  of  dent  corn  have  been  tested  from  one 
to  three  years.  The  altitude  is  1,200  feet;  the  season, 
therefore,  is  comparatively  cool  and  short, and  not  espec- 
ially adapted  to  the  growth  of  dent  varieties.  The 
following  table  gives  the  yield  of  dry  matter  in 
pounds  fi'om  ears  and  stover. 

FLnt.  Dent. 

Ears 1,750  3,012 

Stover 1,C91  3,258 

Total 3,441  6,370 

Soft  corn  is  grown  to  some  extent  by  the  Indians. 
It  can  be  made  into  meal  rather  readily  by  crude 
methods  and  it  is  said  also  to  be  eaten  whole  by  the 
Indians.  It  is  also  known  as  "squaw  corn."  The 
Brazilian  flour  corn  is  of  this  type. 

The  ease  with  which  varieties  of  corn  mix,  the  ex- 
treme variability  within  certain  limits,  and  the  ease 
with  which  any  type  may  be  obtained  within  these 


INDIAN  CORN.  153 

limits  by  careful  selection,  results  in  infinite  varieties 
of  corn,  many  of  which  are  much  alike.  Every  lo- 
cality has-  its  peculiar  varieties,  some  of  which]  are 
usually  well  adapted  to  the  surrounding  conditions. 

There  seems  to  be  good  evidence  for  believing  that 
for  any  given  locality  a  medium  maturing  variety  will 
yield  more  bushels  of  dry  corn  than  an  earlier  or  a  later 
maturing  variety.  The  later  maturing  variety  will 
often  yield  a  greater  weight  when  husked,  but  the  ex- 
tra quantity  of  water  contained  may,  and  often  does, 
more  than  counterbalance  the  increased  weight.  The 
danger  of  injury  from  frost  is  also  greater.  It  is, 
probably,  a  good  rule  to  plant  varieties  which  will 
ripen  ten  days  before  the  usual  date  at  which  killing 
frosts  occur. 

A  good  ear  of  dent  corn  should  be  as  nearly  cylin- 
drical as  may  be,  so  that  it  may  hold  the  largest 
amount  of  corn  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  junc- 
tion with  the  stalk.  Ears  that  taper  rapidly  also  have 
usually  less  corn  in  proportion  to  the  cob.  Both  the 
tip  and  butt  should  be  well  filled. 

A  good  sized  ear  is  eight  to  nine  inches  long  and 
from  six  and  one-half  to  seven  inches  in  circumfer- 
ence at  two-fifths  its  length  from  the  butt.  Ten  inches 
is  rather  long  for  an  ear  of  dent  corn,  while  seven 
inches  is  a  good  length  for  smaller  varieties.  It  is  a 
good  ear  that  weighs  three- fourths  of  a  pound.  It 
takes  about  100  good  ears  to  make  a  bushel  of  shelled 
corn,   /y 

A  good  size  for  the  circumference  of  the  cob  is  from 
three  and  two-thirds  to  four  and  one-third  inches. 
The  cob  should  be  neither  too  large  nor  too  small. 
It  is  evident  that  of  two  ears  of  equal  size  and  com- 


0 


154        THE  SOILS  'iND'^ROPS  OF  THE  ^E'ARm!* 


'M 


pactness  tlie  one  with  the  small  cob  will  contain  the 

most  cojn. 

A  large  cob  is  not  especially  objectionable,  however, 

if  it  is  surrounded  by  a  correspondingly  larger  supply 

of  corn.  Although  ears 
with  small  cobs  usu- 
ally contain  the  larger 
proportion  of  corn  the 
total  yield  is  often  less. 
In  a  good  ear  the 
shelled  corn  will  oc- 
cupy the  same  space 
as  the  ear  before  it  is 
shelled.  It  is  a  good 
relationship  where  the 
Space  between  rows  well  filled.         length  of  the  kernel  is 

half  that   of  the    diameter  of  the  cob. 

On  an  ear  of  dent  corn  there  should  be  but  little 

space  between  the  rows  of  kernels  and  they  should  be 

solidly  and  compactly  placed. 

To  this  end  the  kernel  should 

be  as  nearly  wedge-shaped 

as    possible.      An     average 

sized    dent  kernel    is  -five- 
eighths   of    an    inch  ^^^^ 

A  smooth  ear  is  pleasanter 

to  husk,  although  there  are 

some      excellent      varieties 

whose  ears  are  rough.     The 

kernels  which   cause  rough 

ears  are   usually  longer  but 

somewhat  less   compact   than  those   causing  smooth 


Space  between  rows  not  well 
tilled. 


I 


INDIAN  OOBN.  155 

There  is  no  evidence  that  color  affects  the  yield. 
White  varieties  are  more  common  in  the  southern  por- 
tion -and  the  yellow  varieties,  are  more  common  in  the 
northern  portions  of  the  United  States. 

Of  two  stalks  bearing  the  same  quantity  of  corn 
the  smaller  stalk  is  to  be  preferred,  where  grain  is  the 
principal  object  sought.  The  larger  the  stalks  the 
more  food  material  necessary  to  produce  th^m,  the 
more  ground  is  shaded,  and,  consequently,  a  less  num- 
ber can  be  raised  per  acre.  In  some  localities  the  ear 
may  be  too  high  on  the  stalk  to  be  easily  husked. 
The  stalks  are  also  more  easily  blown  down.  Four 
feet  above  the  ground  is  a  good  height  for  the  ears  of 
medium  sized  varieties  of  dent  corn. 

Two-eared  varieties  of  dent  corn  have  not  been 
commonly  grown,  and  it  has  not  been  satisfactorily 
shown  in  what  way  it  is  easier  for  a  stalk  of  corn  to 
elaborate  the  material  for  two  ears  of  corn  than  it 
would  be  to  produce  the  same  corn  on  one  ear.  As 
ordinarily  harvested  varieties  bearing  but  one  ear  on 
a  stalk  are  to  be  preferred,  unless  the  two  or  more 
eared  varieties  yield  an  appreciably  larger  quantity  of 
corn. 

A  varying  percentage  of  the  stalks  of  a  field  are 
barren — do  not  bear  any  ears.  The  percentage  of 
barren  stalks  on  a  given  soil  varies  with  the  thickness 
of  planting  and  the  season.  Barrenness  does  not 
seem  to  be  a  variety  characteristic. 

Starting  with  a  good  variety  for  a  given  neighbor- 
hood it  is  important  to  maintain  its  excellence  and  to 
improve  it  by  continued  and  careful  selection.  The 
most  important  thing  is  to  select  good  ears  according 
to  the  standards  just  given.     The  next  thin^  is  to  give 


156       THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

due  consideration  to  the  stalk  upon  which  it  grew.  It 
is  very  much  better  to  select  the  ears  for  seed  in  ad- 
vance of  the  general  husking,  when  it  can  be  done 
leisurely  and  carefully,  and  before  there  has  been  any 
hard  freezing.  In  the  more  northern  latitude  thor- 
ough drying  by  hanging  in  an  airy  place  or  by  arti- 
ficial heat  is  almost  necessary  to  obtain  good  seed.  In 
more  southern  latitudes  storing  in  narrow  cribs  is  all 
that  is  essential. 

The  vitality  of  the  seed  is  injured  by  freezing  be- 
fore the  kernels  are  thoroughly  dry.  It  is  the  water 
in  the  kernel  that  freezes  and  thereby  destroys  the 
tissue.  The  vitality  may  be  preserved  in  two  ways : 
1:  by  thoroughly  drying;  or,  2:  by  not  subjecting  to  a 
low  temperature.  The  former  is  the  only  generally 
feasible  method.  If  the  corn  is  first  thoroughly  dried 
it  does  not  matter  how  low  a  temperature  it  is  sub- 
jected to. 

It  is  hardly  needful  to  state  that  the  vitality  of  all 
seed  corn  should  be  carefully  tested  before  using  it. 
The  vitality  may  be  injured  and  the  seed  still  grow. 
The  seed  should  not  only  sprout  but  it  should  sprout 
strongly.  The  less  the  percentage  of  seeds  sprouting 
the  less  the  vital  power.  For  illustration:  the  Illinois 
Agricultural  Experimental  Station  found  in  the  case 
of  sweet  corn  that  where  95  per  cent  of  the  seed  grew 
in  the  green-house  but  75  per  cent  of  the  seed  which 
grew  in  the  green-house  grew  in  the  field,  while  where 
52  per  cent  grew  in  the  green-house  test  only  55  per 
cent  of  those  which  grew  in  the  green- house  grew  in 
the  field. 

C/limate. — The  corn  plant  is  the  most  variable, 
according  to  the  climate   to  which  it  is  adapted,  of 


INDIAN  CORN.  157 

any  of  our  farm  crops.  The  differences  in  size  be- 
tween the  corn  of  northern  and  southern  latitudes  has 
already  been  mentioned.  These  differences  existed 
when  the  country  was  discovered,  and  we  have  no 
evidence  that  varieties  have  been  modified  in  modern 
times  by  climate  alone. 

Differences  in  the  number  of  days  required  to  ma- 
ture a  variety  exist  similar  to  the  differences  in  size. 
The  smaller  varieties  require  less  and  the  larger  more 
time.  The  time  may  vary,  at  least,  from  90  to  150 
days  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 

In  general  it  may  be  said  that  as  we  go  north  or 
south  of  a  given  latitude,  a  variety  becomes  one  day 
later  or  earlier  for  each  ten  miles  of  travel.  That  is 
to  say,  a  variety  which  ripens  two  weeks  before  a  kill- 
ing frost  in  a  given  locality,  would  only  barely  ripen  if 
taken  140  miles  farther  north,  the  altitude  remainino^ 
the  same.  Care  should  be  taken,  therefore,  in  select- 
ing new  varieties,  to  get  them  from  the  same  latitude. 
If  obtained  from  much  farther  north  they  may  ripen 
too  early,  and  consequently  be  too  small.  If  obtained 
from  much  farther  south  they  may  not  ripen. 

Professor  Brewer  shows  that  nearly  nine-tenths  of 
the  crop  of  1879  was  grown  where  the  July  temper- 
ature is  between  70  and  80  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

Rain- fall  affects  the  yield  of  com  more  directly  than 
does  the  temperature,  while  the  temperature  more 
directly  affects  the  matui'ity  of  the  crop.  The  best 
condition  for  the  growth  of  corn  is  comparatively 
heavy  rains  at  considerable  intervals,  with  clear 
weather  in  the  meantime.  Twenty  inches  of  rain-fall 
are  desirable  during  the  five  corn -growing  months; 
May,  June,  July,  August  and  September. 


168        THIi  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

Soil  and  Manare. — A  large  proportion  of  the 
Indian  corn  crop  is  grown  on  the  drift  soil  to  which  it 
is  so  well  adapted.  For  its  best  growth  Indian  corn 
requires  a  soil  that  is  easily  di'ained  and  does  not  bake 
during  drouth.  The  water  table  should  be  some  dis- 
tance below  the  surface,  say  at  least  three  feet,  but 
the  capillary  attraction  should  be  such  as  to  bring  the 
water  up  freely  during  the  period  of  fastest  growth. 

The  corn  plant  uses  large  quantities  of  water  dur- 
ing its  growth,  especially  during  July  and  August, 
and  unless  the  physical  conditions  of  the  soil  with 
reference  to  soil  and  water  are  the  best  it  is  apt  to  suf- 
fer from  a  lack  of  water,  or,  in  other  words,  from 
drouth. 

A  large  supply  of  humus  increases  the  capillary 
power  of  the  soil  and  it  is  probably  one  reason  why 
stable  manure  is  generally  found  beneficial. 

The  corn  plant  requires  a  fertile  soil  and  through- 
out the  region  where  the  bulk  of  the  crop  is  grown  it 
is  planted  on  the  most  fertile  soil.  Stable  manure  is 
more  frequently  applied  to  land  to  be  put  into  corn 
than  to  any  other.  Grass  and  clover  are  usually  fol- 
lowed by  corn.  Throughout  the  main  corn  belt  a 
good  rotation  is  corn  two  years,  oats  pr  wheat  one 
year,  timothy  and  clover  three  years.  In  some  local- 
ities in  the  eastern^  states  the  rotation  is :  corn,  oats, 
wheat  and  clover  with  timothy,  each  one  year,  the 
stable  manure  being  applied  to  the  wheat. 

The  use  of  stable  manure,  and  the  rotation  of  crops 
in  connection' with  stock  raising,  are  the  chief  means  of 
keeping  the  land  in  good  condition  to  grow  corn. 
Generally  speaking,  commercial  fertilizers  have  not 
been  profitably  applied  to  corn.  This  is  almost 
sweepingly  true  west   of  the  Allegheny    Mountains. 


CHAPTEK  XIV. 

INDIAN  CORN. 

Coltnre, — The  time  and  depth  at  which  to  pre- 
pare the  seed-bed  will  vary  with  the  soil,  climate,  the 
particular  season  and,  in  some  instances,  with  the  pre- 
vious crop  grown  on  the  land.  In  general,  fall  plow- 
ing is  advisable.  When  plowing  in  the  spring  there 
is  a  practice,  which  seems  to  be  a  good  one,  of  plow- 
ing immediately  before  planting.  The  land  is  plowed, 
immediately  dragged  and  rolled,  and  then  harrowed 
and  planted  while  the  surface  is  still  fresh  and  moist. 
When  the  plowing  is  done  earlier  in  the  spring  the 
surface  becomes  hard  and  it  requires  more  labor  to 
get  a  good  seed-bed  than  when  the  plowing  is  done 
later.  It  is  a  question  of  labor  merely.  The  main 
point  is  to  get  a  deep,  well  pulverized  seed-bed.  The 
more  well  directed  labor  there  is  put  on  the  seed- bed 
before  planting  the  better. 

Corn  will  sprout  at  47  degrees  Fahrenheit.  It  will 
grow  and  produce  chlorophyll  at  54  degrees  Fahren- 
heit. It  will  grow  more  readily  as  the  temperature 
increases  up  to,  at  least,  80  Fahrenheit;  but  Sachs 
^vesllo  degrees  Fahrenheit  as  the  highest  tem- 
perature at  which  corn  will  sprout.  The  soil 
should  be  at  least  60  degrees  Fahrenheit  at  the  depth 
of  planting  before  the  corn  is  planted.  But  it  is  not 
enough  to  consult  the  thermometer.  The  almanac 
should  also  be  consulted.  A  change  in  the  weather 
may  follow  even  after  the  temperature  of  the  soil  is 
at  60  degrees  Fanronheit.  The  old  Indian  sign,  which 

159 


160        THE  SOILS  AND  CEOPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

is  to  plant  corn  when  the  leaves  of  oak  trees  are  as  big 
as  a  squirrel's  ear,  is  not  much  at  fault.  There  is 
fairly  good  evidence  that  in  the  main  corn  belt  there  is 
a  period  of  three  or  four  weeks  within  which  the  time 
of  planting  does  not  materially  affect  the  yield.  Very 
early  planting,  however,  has  been  found  to  require 
more  cultivation  to  keep  the  land  free  of  weeds. 
Through  the  niain  corn  belt  from  the  10th  to  the  20th 
of  May  is  the  usual  time  of  planting.  Where  corn  is 
planted  on  old  sod-land  the  corn  should  be  planted 
later  to  avoid  cut  worms  and  allied  insects. 

Experiments  have  shown  that  there  is  little  differ- 
ence in  the  yield,  whether  the  seed  is  from  the  butt, 
middle  or  tip  of  the  ear.  The  tip  kernels  being 
smaller  have  less  food  material  to  supply  the  develop- 
ing plant.  Beyond  this  there  seems  to  be  no  reason 
why  they  should  not  produce  plants  which  would  yield 
as  abundantly  as  kernels  from  any  other  part  of  the 
ear.  The  kernel  does  not  reproduce  itself  but  the  ear 
from  which  it  was  taken.  In  practice  it  is  found  bet- 
ter not  to  use  tip  and  butt  kernels,  especially  the 
former,  in  order  that  the  planting  with  the  ordinary 
planters  may  be  more  regularly  done. 

Corn  may  be  planted  from  one  to  four  inches  deep. 
In  exceptionally  dry  seasons,  planting  six  inches  deep 
has  been  known  to  give  better  results  than  shallow 
planting,  but  usually  one  iuch  deep  is  better  than" 
deeper  so  far  as  the  growth  of  the  plant  is  con- 
cerned. When  planted  by  machinery  it  is  usually 
necessary  to  plant  somewhat  deeper  in  order  that  all 
the  corn  may  be  covered.  Hence  the  desirability  of  a 
uniform  seed-bed.  Where  it  is  the  practice  to  har- 
row the  land   after  planting  the  corn,  it  is  probably 


c 


r 


^j^\  " 


INDIAN  CORN.  161 

better  to  plant  deeper  than  one  inch  so  as  not  to  move 
or  drag  out  the  hills.  The  depth  of  planting  has 
merely  to  do  with  the  plants  getting  properly  started. 
If  the  corn  sprouts  and  comes  up  equally  well,  no 
difference  in  yield  need  be  expected  on  account  of  the 
depth  of  planting. 

The  depth  of  the  roots  is  not  materially  affected  by 
the  depth  of  planting.  When  a  kernel  sprouts,  three 
or  four  roots  are  produced  at  the  kernel.  No  matter 
what  depth  the  kernel  is  planted  the  second  whorl  of 
roots,  or  the  crown  roots,  are  produced  at  about  an 
inch  from  the  surface,  varying  somewhat,  probably^ 
with  the  nature  of  the  soil.  The  deeper  the  kernel  is 
planted  the  greater  the  distance  between  the  first  two 
whorls  of  roots.  The  stem  between  these  points  is 
usually  about  one- sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  diameter, 
while  above  the  crown,  in  plants  15  inches  high,  the 
stem  is  about  three-eighths  by  five-eighths  of  an 
inch  in  diameter.  The  roots  at  tiie  kernel  die 
in  a  few  weeks,  so  that  the  roots  which  ulti- 
mately nourish  the  plant  grow  at  the  same  dis- 
tance from  the  surface  without  reference  to  the 
depth  at  which  the  kernel  is  planted.  Nothing  is 
.gained,  therefore,  by  deep  planting,  unless  necessita- 
ted by  the  dryness  of  the  soil.  It  only  requires  of  the 
plant  extra  force  and  time  to  reach  a  position  where 
the  roots  which  eventually  nourish  the  plant  will 
grow. 

The  thickness  of  planting  depends  upon  the  soil, 
climate  and  variety.  In  some  of  the  southern  states 
corn  is  planted  in  hills  five  feet  apart  and  one  stalk 
produced  per  hill.  In  the  New  England  states  corn 
may  be  planted  three  feet  apart  and  three  stalks  raised 
per    hill. 


162        THE  SOILS  AND  CEOPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

In  one  experiment  at  the  Georgia  Experiment 
Station  a  larger  yield  of  dent  corn  was  obtained  where 
2,184  stalks  were  raised  per  acre  than  by  the  thicker 
planting.  In  another  experiment,  at  the  Connecticut 
Experiment  Station,  a  larger  yield  of  dent  corn 
was  obtained  with  21,780  stalks  per  acre  than  by 
thicker  or  thinner  planting.  In  other  words,  the  best 
results  with  dent  com  were  obtained  in  Connecticut, 
with  ten  times  as  thick  planting  as  in  Georgia. 
Experiments  indicate  that  for  the  main  belt,  at  the 
rate  of  three  or  four  stalks  per  hill,  at  a  distance  of 
42  to  44  inches  apart  each  way,  is  the  most  desirable 
for  the  production  of  grain.  Planting  too  thickly  re- 
duces the  yield  both  by  reducing  the  size  of  the  ears 
raised  and  by  reducing  the  number  of  ears  raised  in 
proportion  to  the  number  of  stalks.  If  the  largest 
quantity  of  material  is  desired,  stalks  included,  exper- 
ience seems  to  indicate  that  from  one-half  to  as  much 
more  seed  should  be  planted  as  where  the  grain  is  the 
principal  object.  Of  course,  in  any  given  locality 
the  larger-growing  varieties  need  to  be  planted  thinner 
and  the  smaller  varieties  thicker  to  get  the  best 
results. 

The  Indian  method  of  planting  was  to  plant  four 
kernels  in  hills  four  feet  each  way.  This  method 
they  taught  the  colonists.  The  usual  method  in  the 
eastern  states  is  to  plant  in  drills.  In  the  surplus 
corn  states  the  practice  is  divided,  but  the  larger  part 
is  planted  in  hills.  The  chief  reason  why  corn  is 
planted  in  drills  in  the  eastern  states  is  that  on  ac- 
count of  the  unevenness  of  the  surface  and  the  com- 
parative smallness  of  the  held,  the  check  rowing 
planters  do   not   readily   check  straight  cross  rows, 


iNDiAK  CORN.  163 

and  that  while  a  one-horse  machine  which  will  drill 
corn  rapidly  enough  for  eastern  requirements  can  be 
bought  for  from  $10  to  $12,  a  two- horse  corn  planter, 
such  as  is  found  economical  in  the  larger  and  more 
level  fields  of  Ohio,  Mississippi  and  Missouri  valleys, 
would  cost  from  $30  to  $40.  The  difference  in 
method  is  one  of  economical  farm  management 
rather  thau  any  difference  in  the  growth  of  the  corn. 

Experiments  show  that  it  makes  little,  if  any,  dif- 
ference whether  the  corn  is  planted  in  hills  or  drills 
so  long  as  the  land  is  kept  equally  free  of  weeds.  It 
is  only  a  question,  therefore,  by  which  method  the 
corn  can  be  raised  at  the  least  cost,  and,  at  the  same 
time  given  equally  effective  cultivation. 

The  key-note  to  the  cultivation  of  corn  is  to  keep 
the  land  as  free  as  possible  from  any  growing  vegeta- 
tion, except  the  corn,  and  to  do  it  with  the  least  pos- 
sible disturbance  of  the  roots.  Much  less  stirring  of 
the  soil  after  the  corn  is  planted  is  necessary  or  even 
desirable  than  has  been  formerly  supposed. 

Cultivation  does  two  things:  it  stirs  the  soil  and 
kills  the  weeds.  These  are  entirely  separate  things, 
although  doing  the  former  accomplishes  the  latter. 

In  the  chapter  on  weeds  the  way  in  which  weeds 
may  be  injurious  is  discussed  and  it  is  shown  that 
probably  the  principal  damage  that  ordinary  weeds  do 
in  a  corn  field  is  in  exhausting  the  water  from  the  soil. 

Stirring  the  soil  admits  the  air  more  freely,  so  that 
more  plant  food  may,  perhaps,  be  made  available.  It 
also  loosens  the  earth  so  that  the  roots  may  penetrate 
it  more  freely.  These  things  are,  doubtless,  import- 
ant, but  if  we  stir  the  soil  to  a  depth  that  will  benefit 
the  roots  in  these  ways,  we  mutilate  them.     It  has 


164        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

been  shown  that,  in  the  ordinary  prairie  drift  soil,  a 
large  proportion  of  the  roots  are  between  two  and 
five  inches  deep  at  a  point  where  they  are  likely  to  be 
disturbed  by  cultivation,  and  that  by  far  the  larger 
portion  of  these  are  between  two  and  four  inches  deep. 

It  has  also  been  clearly  demonstrated  that,  by  cut- 
ting off  these  roots  to  the  depth  of  four  inches,  at  six 
inches  from  the  center  of  the  hill  the  yield  of  corn 
is  decreased  in  a  marked  degree.  The  decrease  in 
yield  may  vary  from  one- eighth  to  one- third  the  crop, 
and  a  decrease  of  one- sixth  to  one-fourth  the  crop 
may  be  expected. 

Cultivating  with  an  ordinary  cultivator  does  not 
prune  the  roots  so  completely  as  may  be  done  by  di- 
rect methods,  so  that  as  much  injury  from  deep  culti- 
vation as  from  root  pruning  need  not  be  expected,  but 
that  the  injury  is  often  considerable  has  been  shown 
in  many  places.  The  following  table  shows  the  aver- 
age yield  of  corn  during  three  years  at  the  Illinois 
Experiment  Station  from  deep  and  shallow  cultiva- 
ted plats,  and  from  a  plat  receiving  no  cultivation 
after  the  corn  was  planted  but  having  the  weeds  re- 
moved by  scraping  the  surface  with  a  hoe: 

Av.  bu. 
Kind  of  Cultivation.  ^      per  acre 

dur.3  yrs 

Shallow,  average  3  plats 82 

Deep,  average  3  plats 74 

None,  one  plat 79 

The  practice  of  shallow  cultivation  is  becoming 
much  more  common  than  formerly,  machinery  having 
been  perfected  for  this  purpose,  and  now  many  farm- 
ers never  cultivate  their  corn  over  two  inches  deep. 

Stirring  a  soil  dries  out  the  portion  that  is  stirred 


INDIAN  CORN.  165 

but  keeps  the  water  in  the  soil  below  the  stirred  por- 
tion. If  two  inches  of  cut  straw  are  spread  upon  the 
surface  of  the  soil,  the  evaporation  will  be  checked 
for  obvious  reasons.  Two  inches  of  pulverized  soil 
acts  in  much  the  same  manner,  although  much  less 
effectively,  as  direct  experiment  has  shown.  Indeed, 
the  saving  of  moisture  by  surface  culti\jation  will  de- 
pend very  largely  upon  the  nature  of  the  weather.  If 
this  pulverized  surface  is  frequently  moistened  by 
rains,  the  evaporation  from  the  stirred  portion  may  be 
greater  than  the  evaporation  that  is  thereby  checked 
from  the  soil  below.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  sur- 
face is  kept  loose  more  of  the  water  which  falls  upon 
it  will  pass  into  the  soil  and  less  will  run  off  than 
upon  a  hard  surface. 

In  any  case  the  evaporation  that  is  checked  by  the 
stirring  of  the  surface  is  small  compared  with  the 
quantity  of  water  taken  from  the  soil  by  an  ordinary 
growth  of  weeds.  The  killing  of  weeds  is  much  more 
important,  therefore,  in  conserving  moisture  than  is 
stirring  the  soil.  That  this  is  true  is  indicated  by 
the  fact  that,  on  certain  soils,  at  least,  good  crops  of 
corn  can  be  raised  without  any  stirring  of  the  soil, 
provided  the  land  is  kept  thoroughly  free  of  weeds. 

In  ordinary  practice  it  is  essential  to  stir  the  soil  in 
order  to  kill  the  weeds.  It  may  be  laid  down  as  a 
rule,  therefore,  that  the  soil  should  not  be  stirred 
deeper  than  is  essential  to  a  thorough  eradication  of 
the  weeds.  There  seems  to  be  pretty  good  evidence 
that  the  cultivation  need  not  be  more  frequent  than 
is  necessary  for  their  complete  destruction. 

Harvesting. — When  the  corn  is  grown  for  the 
grain,  it  is   not   harvested   until   entirely  ripe  and 


166        THE  SOILS    AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

growth  lias  ceased,  usually  for  a  considerable  time. 
Experiments  show  that  the  weight  of  dry  matter  is 
increased  in  the  corn  up  to  the  time  it  is  perfectly 
ripe.  Indian  corn  is  our  only  cereal  crop  in  which 
the  harvesting  is  done  almost  exclusively  by  hand. 
At  least  two  hundred  billion  ears  are  separately 
handled  annually. 

When  harvesting  for  fodder  the  practice  is  to  cut 
when  the  ears  begin  to  dent  or  glaze,  and  lower 
leaves  begin  to  get  dry.  Although  less  total  dry  mat- 
ter is  harvested  than  if  allowed  to  ripen,  the  assump- 
tion is  that  the  fodder  is  more  digestible  and  more 
palatable  than  when  riper. 

Plant  Diiseases. — The  most  common  and  gen- 
erally known  plant  disease  to  which  the  corn  is  sub- 
ject is  corn  smut.  {Ustilago  Maydis.)  The  black 
sooty  mass  which  is  familiar  to  every  one  is  composed 
of  myriads  of  microscopic  spores  which  spread  the 
disease.  These  spores  are  supposed  to  germinate  and 
penetrate  the  corn  plant  when  it  is  small  and  the 
smut  plant  grows  inside  the  corn  plant,  the  former 
feeding  upon  the  latter.  The  part  which  we  see 
coming  upon  the  plant  so  conspicuously  during 
August  is  merely  the  fruiting  part  of  the  plant. 

Methods  of  prevention  are  not  well  understood. 
Sowing  with  seed  and  upon  land  which  is  free  from 
the  spores  of  the  disease  should  apparently  accom- 
plish the  object.  Seed  corn  being  hand  selected  is 
less  likely  to  have  the  spores  of  corn  smut  upon  it, 
than  oats,  for  example,  are  to  have  oat  smut  upon 
them.  Rotation  of  crops  might  be  expected  to  rid  the 
land  of  the  spores.  Stable  manure,  especially  where 
corn  fodder  is  fed,  may  be  expected  to  contain  an 


INDIAN  CORN.  167 

abundance  of  the  spores.  None  of  the  preventives 
suggested,  however,  have  been  effectual.  The  disease 
is  much  worse  some  seasons  than  others. 

Corn  smut  is  not  an  active  poison,  as  it  has  been 
fed  to  cattle  in  numerous  instances  in  large  quanti- 
ties for  a  considerable  period  of  time  without  appar- 
ent injury. 

Corn,  like  other  cereals  and  grains,  is  subject  to 
rust,  although  it  does  not  seem  to  be  materially  in- 
jured thereby.  Besides  this  there  is  known  to  exist 
in  Illinois,  and  is  supposed  to  exist  in  other  western 
states,  a  bacterial  disease  of  corn,  which  is  known  not 
only  to  do  considerable  damage  to  corn  in  some  lo- 
calities, but  it  is  also  supposed  that  the  germ  which 
causes  the  disease  in  the  corn  is  able  to  cause  a  sud- 
den and  fatal  disease  in  cattle.  This  is  known  as  the 
corn-stalk  disease.  The  first  indication  of  the  disease 
is  the  dwarfed  condition^of  the  young  plants.  This 
commonly  occurs  in  spots  of  various  sizes,  and  is 
found  in  rich  places,  rather  than  in  those  of  poorer 
quality.  The  young  diseased  plants,  besides  being 
smaller  than  the  healthy  ones,  are  uniformly  yellow- 
ish in  color,  the  lowest  leaves  showing  worst.  Af- 
fected plants  are  easily  pulled  from  the  ground  on 
account  of  the  death  of  the  lower  roots.  The  inner 
tissue  of  the  lower  part  of  the  stalk  has  a  uniform 
dark  color,  while  on  the  surface  there  are  brownish 
corroded  spots.  After  midsummer  the  leaf  sheaths 
become  spotted  with  various  sized  patches  of  a  wa- 
tery brown,  half-rotten  in  appearance,  which  are  most 
conspicuous  from  the  inner  surface.  The  ears  are, 
at  least  occasionally,  affected.  Internally,  in  the 
worst  stage,  the  whole  ear  is  reduced  to  a  moist  state 


168        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

of  corruption.  Very  often  these  ears  subsequently  be- 
come mouldy,  penetrated  through  and  through  by  a 
close,  very  white,  felt-like  fungus.  These  mouldy 
ears  are,  in  certain  seasons,  very  numerous,  and  are 
readily  recognized  by  the  husker. 

No  remedy  is  known.  There  appears  to  be  in  a 
considerable  number  of  cases  more  injury  on  land 
which  has  been  planted  with  corn  the  preceding  year. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

OATS. 

History. — While  the  origin  of  the  cultivation  of 
wheat  can  be  traced  with  some  probability  to  a  warm 
climate  and  that  of  ry.e  to  a  cold  climate,  oats  we 
find  occupying  an  intermediate  position.  They  were 
not  cultivated  by  the  ancient  Egyptians  or  the  He- 
brews as  was  wheat.  Neither  the  ancient  Greeks  nor 
the  ancient  Romans  cultivated  them.  They  were 
likewise  unknown  to  the  ancient  Chinese  or  the  peo- 
ple of  India. 

All  evidence  points  to  eastern  temperate  Europe, 
and  possibly  Tartary,  in  western  Asia,  as  the  probable 
place  of  their  first  cultivation.  They  were  cultivated 
by  the  prehistoric  inhabitants  of  central  Europe,  but 
did  not  appear,  it  is  believed,  until  long  after  wheat 
and  barley.  Hence  they  were  less  important  in  the 
early  history  of  our  race  than  either  of  the  last-named 
crops  or  rye.  When  central  and  northern  Europe 
became  civilized  the  cultivation  of  oats  became  vastly 
more  important,  becoming  in  some  of  the  cool,  moist 
climates  north  the  most  important  cereal  used  for 
man's  food.  In  Scotland  it  occupies  one-third  the 
land  in  cultivated  crops,  excluding  land  in  pastures 
and  meadows.  In  Ireland  it  constitutes  one-half  of 
all  the  grain  and  green  crops. 

Prodactioii, — Oats  stand  third  in  acreage  and 
value  of  product  and  second  in  number  of  bushels  of 
the  cereals  of  the  United  States.     The  annual  pro- 

169 


170        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

duction  for  the  two  decades,  1870-79  and  1880-89  is 
given  below: 

1870-79.  1880-89. 

Area,  acres, 11,000,000  22,000,000 

Yield,    bushels 314,000,000  584,000,000 

Value,  dollars, 111,000,000  181,000,000 

Value,  per  bushel,  dollars 0.35  0.31 

Yield,  per  acre,  bushels, 28.4  26.6 

Value  per  acres,  dollars, 10.00  8.22 

While  the  increase  in  the  yield  of  wheat  and  corn 
during  the  last  decade  over  the  previous  one  was  44 
per  cent,  the  increase  in  the  yield  of  oats  has  been  86 
per  cent.  The  area  sown  to  this  crop  has  doubled. 
This  is  the  largest  increase  of  any  of  our  cereal  crops. 
The  total  value  of  the  crops  has  increased  63  per 
cent.  The  value  per  bushel  has  decreased  four  cents 
and  the  yield  per  acre  less  than  two  bushels.  The 
average  value  of  an  acre  of  oats  is  less  than  any  other 
of  our  more  important  cereal  crops.  Oats  occupy 
about  one- eighth  of  the  tillage  area  of  the  United 
States.  ^ 

The  principal  oat-raising  states  are  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Michigan,  Indiaiia,\^Wi^cons>n, 
Illinois,  Minnesota,  Iowa,  Missouri,  Kansas  and 
Nebraska.  These  twelve  sfetes  raise  over  four-:^fths 
of  the  crop.  The  only  otjier  important  oat-raising^f 
state  is  Texas.  New  York  raises  more  oats  than  any 
other  cereal. 

We  export  very  few  oats,  usually  less  than  half  a 
million  bushels  annually.  In  1889,  however,  we  ex- 
ported ten  million  pounds  of   oatmeal. 

The  proportion  of  straw  may  vary  from  one  to  three 
and  one  half  pounds  of  straw  for  each  pound  of 
grain.     Probably  two  pounds  of  straw  for  each  pound 


\q^   i^^''    ^^^' 


^■:.\ 


N.'- 


OATS.  171 

of  grain  woiUd  be  a  fair  average.  This  would  make 
the  average  yield  of  oat  straw  in  the  United  States 
about  seven- eighths  of  a  ton  per  acre.  The  total 
yield  of  oat  straw  annually  during  the  past  decade 
would  be  18  million  tons,  or  a  little  less  than  one-half 
the  yield  of  hay. 

Structiii*e. — The  oats  plant  (Avena  sativa)  is  dis- 
tinguished from  wheat  and  barley  by  the  heads  being 
in  panicles  instead  of  in  spikes.  The  spikelets,  con- 
taining two  or  more  grains,  are  joined  to  the  stem  by 
an  elongated  base  instead  of  being  directly  joined 
to   it. 

It  differs  from  wheat  and  rye  and  agrees  with 
barley  in  that  usually  the  kernel  is  enclosed  within 
the  palets,  which  are  not  removed  in  the  ordinary 
methods  of  thrashing.  The  comparatively  large 
glumes  are  thin  and  membraneous.  The  lower  palet 
usually  has  an  awn  of  more  or  less  length,  according 
to  the  variety  and  conditions  under  which  it  is  grown. 

Use. — Oats  have  become  the  greatest  of  all  grain 
foods  for  horses.  In  this  country  oats  are  used  in  con- 
nection with  and  interchangeable  with  corn.  If  one 
is  more  plentiful,  and,  therefore,  cheaper  than  the 
other,  it  is  used  more  abundantly.  So  in  consider- 
ing the  possibility  of  a  rise  or  fall  in  price  of  either 
we  must  ascertain  the  combined  yield  of  the  two 
cereals. 

In  the  United  States,  oatmeal  was  formerly  but 
sparingly  used.  Its  consumption  has  increased  enor- 
mously in  recent  years,  its  use  having  become  thor- 
oughly diffused  in  a  moderate  way  throughout  the 
country.     It  is  manufactured  in    many  places. 

Oat  straw  is  preferred  to  wheat  or  rye  straw  as  food 


172        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

for  cattle,  and  for  bedding.  It  is  less  valuable  than 
rye  straw  for  the  manufacture  of  paper,  and  than 
wheat  straw  also,  although  some  paper  mills  are  said 
to  prefer  it  to  wheat  straw. 

In  the  south,  where  it  is  difficult  to  grow  our  tame 
grasses,  oats  are  frequently  cut  green  for  hay. 

Composition. — It  would  be  reasonable  to  sup- 
pose, that  as  oats  deteriorate  so  readily  and  are  appar- 
ently so  easily  influenced  by  their  surroundings,  great 
variations  would  be  found  in  their  chemical  compo- 
sition under  different  climatic  conditions. 

Analyses  show  that  there  is  very  little  variation  in 
the  kernel  itself,  that  is,  the  residue  after  the  palets 
or  hulls  are  removed.  Taking  the  kernel  alone,  oats 
have  a  considerably  larger  per  cent  of  albuminoids  and 
fat  than  any  other  of  our  cereals.  Taking  the  whole 
berry  as  we  feed  it  to  our  stock,  oats  differ  from  corn 
principally  in  having  a  larger  per  cent  of  crude  fiber  at 
the  expense  of  the  starch. 

As  prepared  for  human  food  it  is  the  most  nutri- 
tious of  our  cereals.  It  is  especially  adapted  to  peo- 
ple living  in  northern  climates  or  those  who  have 
plenty  of  out-door  exercise.  It  is  said  that  in  eastern 
Scotland  the  unmarried  plowmen  lived  solely  on  oat- 
meal and  milk,  except  in  the  winter,  when  they  some- 
times got  potatoes.  They  were  allowed  seventeen  and 
one-half  pounds  of  oatmeal  weekly,  and  three  to  four 
pints  of  milk  daily.  This  formed  their  sole  diet  with  no 
other  cooking  than  boiling  water  stirred  into  the  meal. 
These  men  were  strong  and  healthy.  The  witty  Dr. 
Johnson  sarcastically  remarked:  "Oats  is  a  grain  fed  to 
horses  in  England,  but  eaten  by  men  in  Scotland." 
"YeSj"  said  a  Scotchman,   *'and  I  have  noticed  that 


OATS.  173 

they  grow  the  best  of  horses  in  England  and  the  best 
of  men  in  Scotland." 

The  quality  of  oats  depends  principally  upon  the 
proportion  of  hull  to  kernel.  The  per  cent  of  hull 
will  vary  in  different  varieties  from  at  least  20  to  45 
per  cent.  The  per  cent  of  hull  will  depend  both  upon 
the  variety  and  upon  the  conditions  of  growth. 
American  varieties  contain'on  an  average  about  30  per 
cent  of  hull  and  70  per  cent  of  kernel.  About  50 
pounds  of  oatmeal  are  made  from  100  pounds  of  oats. 

While  at  first  thought  it  is  a  matter  of  some  sur- 
prise, it  has  been  pretty  satisfactorily  demonstrated 
that  those  varieties  with  long,  slender,  light  berries 
and  light  weight  per  bushel  contain  an  appreciably 
larger  per  cent  of  kernel  than  those  varieties  with 
short,  plump,  heavy  berries  and  heavy  weight  per 
bushel.  In  other  words,  those  varieties  which  sell 
best  on  the  market  or  take  the  premiums  at  exhibi- 
tions have  the  least  food  value. 

Oats  may  vary  in  weight  from  25  to  50  pounds  per 
bushel,  the  lighter  weights  being  found  in  the  more 
southern  climates.  Ki  chard  son  found  the  average 
weight  per  bushel  of  166  varieties  gathered  from  the 
various  sections  of  the  United  States  to  be  37  pounds. 

Climate, — Oats  are  naturally  adapted  to  a  cooler 
climate  than  wheat,  barley  or  corn.  The  climate 
needs  to  be  both  cool  and  moist.  Oats  grow  fairly 
well  in  the  south,  where,  while  warm,  it  is  moist,  but 
in  California,  where  both  warm  and  dry,  oats  do 
poorly.  Oats  grow  to  perfection  in  the  cool,  moist 
climate  of  Scotland,  Norway  and  Sweden.  It  is 
from  these  countries  that  we  get  our  new  varieties  as 
a  rule.     It  is  on  account  of   the   adaptability  of  the 


174        THE  SOILS  AKD  CROPS  OF  THE  FABM. 

oat  plant  to  a  cool,  moist  climate  that  early  sowing 
is  found  especially  advantageous.  It  is  curious  that 
while  the  cultivated  oat  does  poorly  in  California  the 
wild  species,  Avena  f  atria,  L.,  should  become  an  abun- 
dant and  valuable  wild  pasture  grass  in  that  state. 

The  physical  properties  of  oats  seem  to  be  readily 
affected  by  climate.  The  southern  varieties  are  larger, 
less  plump,  often  of  a  dirty  dun  color,  with  long- awns. 
Of  course  there  are  all  degrees  of  plumpness,  from 
the  very  short,  plump,  smooth  berries  of  the  more 
northern  climate  to  the  long,  slender,  long  awned 
southern  varieties.  The  fact  that  short,  plump, 
smooth,  heavy  berries  have  the  largest  market  value 
has  led  to  the  importation  of  varieties  from  Scotland, 
Norway  and  Sweden.  Probably  more  new  varieties 
of  oats  are  imported  and  distributed  by  seedsmen  than 
of  any  other  cereal. 

Soil. — The  character  of  the  soil  upon  which  oats 
are  sown  is  of  less  importance  probably  than 
with  any  other  crop.  Almost  any  tillable  soil 
will  bring  a  fair  crop  of  oats.  It  is  on  this 
account  and  because  oats  are  liable  to  lodge  on 
very  fertile  soil,  that  they  are  sown  on  the  poorer 
soils  and  on  soils  in  the  most  exhausted  state  of 
fertility.  In  the  American  systems  of  rotation  they  usu- 
ally follow  corn.  Fertilizers  are  seldom  applied  to 
this  crop,  both  because  they  grow  too  rank  and 
because  it  usually  pays  better  to  apply  the  manure  to 
some  other  crop.  Oats  respond,  however,  very  readily 
to  an  application  of  manure  where  applied  when 
needed. 

Varieties. — Oats  may  be  classified  according  to 
their  date  of   ripening,  according   to  the  color  and 


OATS.  175 

siiape  of  the  berry,  and  upon  the  way  in  which  the 
spikelets  are  arranged  on  the  stem.  In  some  varieties, 
the  spikelets  are  distributed  on  all  sides  of  the  stem 
and  are  spreading.  Other  varieties  produce  the  spike- 
lets on  one  side  of  the  stem  and  are  not  spreading, 
but  are  erect  and  close  against  the  stem.  The  former 
may  be  said  to  be  varieties  with  open  panicles,  and 
the  latter  varieties  with  closed  panicles.     The   latter 


Vaeiety  with.  Vakiett  with  Open 

Closed  Panicle.  Panicle. 

are  also  known  as  side  oats.  These  two  types  of  oats 
have  been  considered  distinct  species  by  some  writers. 
There  are,  however,  all  degrees  of  variation  between 
the  varieties  with  open  and  closed  panicles. 

There  is  still  another  type  of  oats  in  which  the 
palets  or  hulls  are  removed  upon  thrashing,  and  there 
only  remains  the  hulless  kernels.     These  are  called 


176        THE  SOILS  AND  CHOPS  OF  THE  I* ARM. 

huUess  oats,  and  are  the  so-called  Bohemian  oats. 
This  kind  is  usually  considered  a  distinct  species 
Avena  nuda,  L.  It  is  not  generally  raised,  as  the 
yield  is  considerably  less  than  of  the  varieties  in  which 
the  palets  or  hulls  are  not  thrashed  off.  One  reason, 
of  course,  why  the  yield  is  less  is  because  the  palets 
or  hulls  go  into  the  straw  instead  of  with   the  grain. 

Experiments  seem  to  indicate  that  there  is  no  ma- 
terial difference  in  yield  between  varieties  with 
open  or  closed  panicles,  between  varieties  of  different 
color,  or  between  varieties  having  short,  plump  ber- 
ries and  those  having  long,  slender  berries,  and  con- 
sequently between  varieties  of  different  weights  per 
bushel. 

In  America  there  are  more  early  maturing  varieties 
with  short,  plump,  white  berries  and  open  panicles 
than  any  other  kind,  such  as  White  Swede,  Early 
Lackawanna,  Canada  White,  White  Bonanza,  White 
Victoria,  Welcome,  Clydesdale,  Hopetown,  White 
Wonder,  Prize  Cluster,  Badger  Queen,  White  Belgian, 
Hargett's  White  and  Centennial.  There  is  little  practi- 
cal difference  in  the  varieties  named.  They  have  the 
advantage  over  later  maturing  varieties,  in  that  their 
growth  and  maturity  are  during  the  cooler  portion  of 
the  season,  and  also  because  they  may  often  be  har- 
vested so  as  to  avoid  storms  which  injure  the  late  va- 
rieties. In  some  localities  early  maturing  varieties 
are  desirable  in  order  that  they  may  be  harvested  in 
time  to  prepare  for  the  succeeding  crop.  There  is  a 
difference  of  about  two  weeks  in  the  market  varieties 
of  this  country.  Early  varieties  also  usually  have 
shorter  stems  and  are,  therefore,  less  likely  to  lodge. 

Culture. — It  is  not  customaiy  to  prepare  the  seed- 


/ 


OA.TS.  Ill 

bed  so  deeply  for  oats  as  for  wheat,  rye,  barley  or  coru. 
In  the  eastern  states  the  land  is  usually  plowed.  lu 
the  western  states  many  acres  are  sown  on  corn  land 
without  plowing.  The  oats  are  sown  broadcast  on  the 
unprepared  land  and  covered  with  a  corn  cultivator, 
disc  harrow  or  similar  implement.  Sometimes  the 
corn-stalk  land  is  cultivated'once  before  sowing  the 
oats  and  then  cultivated  once  or  twice  afterward. 
Good  crops  are  grown  in  this  way,  but  very  much  de- 
pends upon  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  something  up- 
on the  season.  When  the  soil  is  naturally  compact 
plowing  is  better.  Some  times  oats  are  sown  on  the 
uncultivated  surface  and  the  land  shallowly   plowed. 

Unless  the  land  is  plowed  oats  must,  of  course,  be 
sown  broadcast.  On  plowed  land  the  practice  is 
divided,  but  broadcasting  is  probably  the  most  general, 
the  controlling  reason  being  that  they  can  be  some- 
what more  cheaply  sown  in  this  way,  than  if  ^the 
drill  is  used. 

In  the  south  fall  and  winter  varieties  are  sown.  In 
some  localities  in  the  south  oats  are  sown  in  Novem- 
ber, December,  January  and  February  during  the 
same  season.  The  bulk  of  the  crop  in  this  country, 
however,  is  from  spring  seeding.  Oats  should  be 
sown  as  early  in  the  spring  as  possible.  Experiments 
indicate  that  there  is  a  marked  decrease  both  in  the 
yield  and  the  weight  per  bushel  when  the  seeding  is 
delayed.  With  corn,  the  time  of  planting,  within  four 
or  five  weeks,  any  season  is  not  especially  important. 
Such  a  diffarence  in  the  time  of  sowing  oats  may 
make  the  difference  between  success  and  failure. 

The  depth  of  sowing,  between  one  to  four  inches, 
does  not  seem  to  be  important.  The  same  principles 
apply  here  as  with  com  and   wheat. 


178        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FAEM. 

The  yield  within  certain  limits  is  not  materially 
modified  by  the  thickness  of  planting.  The  oat  plant, 
like  the  wheat  plant,  has  the  ability  to  adapt  itself  to 
its  surroundings,  so  that  where  it  is  thinly  planted  it 
stools  more  than  when  thickly  planted.  On  son^e 
soils,  at  least,  the  thinly  sown  oats  are  later  in  matur- 
ing and  the  proportion  of  straw  is  greater.  No  definite 
rule  can  be  laid  down,  but  sowinoj  from  two  to  three 
bushels  according  to  circumstances  may  be  taken  as  a 
safe  guide.  The  number  of  berries  in  a  pound  of  oats 
has  been  found  to  vary  with  different  varieties  from 
about  11,000  to  about  30,000. 

The  oat  plant  is  generally  exceptionally  free  from 
insect  enemies  and  plant  diseases.  It  is  subject  to 
rust  in  a  Avay  similar  to  wheat,  and  for  which,  as  in 
wheat,  there  is  no  known  remedy.  It  is  subject  to  the 
loose  smut,  similar  to  that  described  under  wheat. 
This  is  much  more  common  and  destructive  on  oats 
than  on  wheat.     The  same  treatment  is  efficacious. 


I 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

BARLEY   AND  RYE. 

History  of  Barley. — The  culture  of  barley  is 
very  ancient.  Both  it  and  wheat  were  cultivated  be- 
fore we  have  any  history  of  mau.  In  ancient  Egypt 
it  was  used  as  food  for  man  and  beast,  and  also  made 
into  beer.  It  was  the  chief  bread  plant  of  all  those 
nations  from  which  we  derive  our  civilization.  Bar- 
ley continued  to  be  the  chief  bread  plant  of  continental 
Europe  down  to  the  sixteenth  century.  The  intro- 
duction and  wide  cultivation  of  potatoes  and  the 
rapid  development  of  the  growth  of  wheat  has  brought 
about  a  decline  in  the  use  of  barley.  Barley  was 
used  to  some  extent  by  both  man  and  beast  in  the 
early  colonies  of  this  country. 

Production. — Barley  is  the  fourth  cereal  crop  in 
the  extent  of  its  production  in  the  United  States.  It 
is. much  less  important,  however,  than  either  wheat, 
corn  or  oats.  The  acreage  of  wheat  is  about  one-half, 
that  of  oats  less  than  one-third,  and  that  of  barley 
only  about  one-thirtieth  that  of  corn.  The  average 
yield  of  barley  during  the  past  decade  was  22  bushels 
per  acre.  From  35  to  40  bushels  per  acre  may  be 
considered  a  fairly  good  yield.  Fifty  bushels  per 
acre  is  not  extraordinary.  The  average  price  during 
past  decade  has  been  59  cents  per  bushel,  a  decrease 
of  15  cents  from  previous  decade. 

The  average  annual  value  per  acre  of  wheat,  corn, 
oats  and  barley  during  the  past  decade  has  been: 
wheat,  $9.97;  corn,  $9.48;  oats,  $8.22;  barley,  $13.79. 

179 


180         THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FAPwM. 

The  significance  of  these  figUres  may  be  illustrated 
by  assuming  the  cost  of  raising  either  an  acre  of 
wheat  or  barley  at  eight  dollars.  On  this  basis  the 
profit  from  an  acre  of  wheat  would  be  $1.97,  while 
from  an  acre  of  barley  it  would  be  $4.79. 

Practical  experience  has  demonstrated  that  barley 
is  a  paying  crop  in  regions  to  which  it  is  adapted,  but 
the  distribution  of  barley  is  very  peculiar.  It  is  a 
maxim  that  like  causes  produce  like  efPects.  Here 
is  an  example  of  unlike  causes  producing  like  effects. 
A  few  years  ago  California  and  New  York  were  the 
largest  two  barley-producing  states.  The  large  pro- 
duction in  California  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  climate 
is  favorable  for  barley  and  not  favorable  for  the  pro- 
duction of  corn  and  oats,  nor  for  the  ordinary  cul- 
tivated tame  grasses.  Barley  is  the  forage  crop  of 
California.  In  New  York  the  climate  is  not  especially 
adapted  to  barley,  and  is  well  enough  adapted  to  oats, 
corn  and  tame  grasses.  The  partial  failure  of  the 
wheat  crop  from  the  ravages  of  the  Hessian  fly,  the 
competition  of  the  western  wheat-raising  states  and 
probably  the  demand  for  barley  for  malting  purposes, 
are  some  of  the  causes  which  have  led  to  the  increased 
acreage  in  New  York.  On  the  other  hand,  New  York 
produced  in  1888  sixteen  times  as  much  barley  as 
Pennsylvania,  although  the  two  states  are  otherwise 
much  alike  in  their  cereal  production. 

Seven  states  raised  six-sevenths  of  the  crop  in  1888, 
the  order  of  the  greatest  yield  being:  California, 
Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  New  York,  Dakota  (north  and 
south),  Iowa  and  Nebraska. 

Our  average  annual  import  since  1870  has  been 
eight  million  bushels  or  about  one-fifth  of  our  annual 


BARLEY  AND  RYE.  181 

production.  The  imported  barley  comes  almost  en- 
tirely from  Canada. 

.  Structure. — Barley  agrees  with  oats  in  having 
the  palets  adherent.  The  hull  is  somewhat  different 
in  texture  from  that  of  the  oat  and  has  a  long  barbed 
awn  or  beard,  which  makes  barley  a  very  disagreeable 
crop  to  handle.  The  hull  is  very  closely  attached  to 
the  kernel  and  is  not  so  easily  removed  as  in  case  of 
oats.  The  hull  may  form  from  12  to  18  per  cent  of 
the  berry,  15  per  cent  being  about  an.  average. 

Use. — Barley  is  very  little  used  in  this  country  as 
an  article  of  human  food,  and  then  only  as  pearl  bar- 
ley. It  is  largely  used  as  a  stock  food  and  for  malt- 
ing purposes.  Except  on  the  Pacific  Slope  its  use  as 
a  stock  food  is  not  general  as  compared  with  corn 
or  oats.  In  Europe  it  takes  the  place  largely  which 
Indian  corn  does  in  America.  It  is  also  used  for  malt- 
ing purposes,  and  on  the  continent,  especially  in  the 
southern  part,  is  used  as  a  human  food. 

Composition. — Barley,  differs  from  Indian  corn 
principally  in  having  a  less  per  cent  of  fat.  Oats 
contain  about  three  times  as  much  crude  fibre  as 
barley,  yet  it  is  essential  to  grind  barley  before  feed- 
ing it,  while  it  is  not  necessary  to  grind  oats.  Other- 
wise, as  compared  to  oats,  it  has  less  fat  and  more 
starch,  the  starch  taking  the  place  of  the  extra  crude 
fibre  in  the  oats. 

The  highest  priced  barley  is  used  for  malting  pur- 
poses. For  this  use  barley  should  be  mealy  instead 
of  glossy,  light  in  color,  and  have  a  low  percentage 
of  albuminoids.  As  sold  in  the  market,  however,  the 
grade  depends  upon  its  plumpness,  its  weight  and  its 
color,  the  latter  two  being  the  most  important.     The 


182        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

greater  the  weight  and  the  lighter  the  color,  the  higher 
the  grade.  The  best  barley  for  feeding  purposes  is 
the  poorest  for  malting.  As  the  price  is  fixed  by  the* 
demand  for  malting,  the  best  feeding  barley  is  the 
lowest  in  price.  The  price  varies  more  with  the  grade 
than  is  the  case  with  any  other  cereal. 

The  woight  per  bushel  depends  much  upon  the 
thoroughness  with  which  the  beards  are  removed.  To 
accomplish  this  the  grain  is  often  ran  through  the 
thrashing  machine  a  second  time.  So  important  is  the 
weight  that  at  elevators  where  much  barley  is 
shipped  special  machinery  is  used  for  thoroughly 
scouring  and  cleaning  it.  The  legal  weight  in  most 
states  is  48  pounds.  The  color  is  darkened  by  rains 
or  heavy  dews  after  the  barley  is  ripe.  To  produce  a 
high  grade  of  barley  it  is  important  to  get  it  dry  and 
in  stack  as  soon  as  possible  after  cutting  it. 

Climate.— Barley  is  successfully  cultivated  in  a 
wider  range  of  climate  than  any  other  cereal.  It  is 
cultivated  from  Iceland  to  semi-tropical  California. 
Although  an  important  crop  in  Norway  and  Sweden, 
it  was  formerly  the  bread  plant  of  the  people  border- 
ing on  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  It  is  said  to  grow  at  the 
extreme  north  where  the  soil  only  melts  a  few  inches 
deep.  It  seems,  however,  to  be  best  adapted  to  a 
warm,  dry  climate. 

Professor  Brewer  shows  that  the  greatest  produc- 
tion of  barley  is  with  a  smaller  amount  of  annual 
rainfall,  and  also  a  smaller  amount  of  rainfall  during 
the  growing  season,  than  in  the  case  of  any  other 
cereal.  An  abundance  of  rain,  however,  does  not 
deter  it  from  successful  growth, 

ISoil. — Whether  the  peculiar  distribution  of  barley 


BARLEY  AND  RYE. 


183 


in  the  United  States  is  in  any  way  dependent  upon 
the  soil  has  not,  and  possibly  cannot  be  satisfactorily 
ascertained.  The  general  impression  is  that  the 
nature  of  the  soil  makes  more  difference  with  barley 
than  with  our  other  cereal  crops.  English  experi- 
ence would  indicate  that 
rather  sandy  _  and  well 
drained  soils  are  better  than 
clay  soils  or  soils  not  well 
drained. 

It  needs  a  fertile  soil  and 
will  stand  liberal  manuring. 
There  is  good  reason  for  be- 
lieving that  if  stable  manure 
is  applied  directly  to  barley 
it  should  be  well  rotted.  It 
is  probably  better,  however 
to  apply  the  manure  to  a 
previous  crop,  such  as  corn 
or  wheat.  The  roots  of  bar- 
ley grow  near  the  surface  of 
the  soil,  and  although  they 
grow  rapidly  they  are  comparatively  feeble  and  short- 
lived. The  fertilizing  ingredients,  therefore,  need 
to  be  in  a  soluble  condition.  Barley  is  considered  an 
exhaustive  crop. 

Varieties. — There  are  at  least,  four  types  of 
barley  which  are  somewhat"  distinct,  and  have  been 
considered  species.  The  four  types,  with  the  botanical 
names  given  them,  are  as  follows: 

1.  Two-rowed  barley,  Hordeum  distichon,  L. 

2.  Four-rowed  barley,  Hordeum   imlgare,  L. 

3.  Six-rowed  barley,  Hordeum  hexastichon,  L. 

.    4.     Naked  barley,  Hordeum   distichon  nudum^  Ij, 


Six-Rowed 
Babl,ey. 


184       THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

It  is  the  six-rowed  type  that  is  generally  raised  in 
this  country.  In  England  the  two- rowed  type  is  prin- 
cipally used  for  malting,  the  six-rowed  being  used 
there  for  grinding  and  feeding.  The  two-rowed  type 
has  been  found  to  yield  more  malt-extract  than  the 
six-rowed.  The  leading  six -rowed  varieties  are 
Mansbury,  Scotch  and  Imperial.  The  hulless  or 
naked  barley  is  grown  only  for  feed.  It  does  not 
seem  so  prolific  as  varieties  with  hulls. 

Culture. — The  seed-bed  should  be  deeply  and 
thoroughly  pulverized.  To  this  end  the  land  should 
be  plowed  fairly  deep.  A  well  prepared  seed-bed  is 
essential  for  barley. 

Barley  is  sown  in  the  fall  in  Europe  along  the  Medi- 
terranean sea,  but  in  America  practically  only  spring 
barley  is  sown.  The  temperature  required  for  the 
germination  of  barley  is  about  the  same  as  that  of 
wheat.  The  barley  plant  when  young,  however,  is 
rather  more  susceptible  to  cold  than  .wheat.  A  light 
frost  just  after  it  is  up  is  likely  to  injure  it.  In  the 
spring  wheat  regions  barley  is  generally  sown  after 
wheat  is  sown  and  before  oats  are  sown. 

Two  bushels  is  the  usual  quantity  of  seed  sown  per 
acre.  It  is  generally  sown  broadcast,  although  some 
raisers  prefer  to  use  the  drill. 

Harveisting. — Formerly  the  barley  crop  was 
usually  cut  with  a  self-rake  reaper,  and  laid  off  in 
small  gavels  or  in  continuous  swaths.  These  were 
allowed  to  dry  a  day  or  so,  as  required,  and  then  raked 
together,  or,  more  usually,  placed  in  piles  by  hand  with 
large  wooden,  four-tined  forks.  The  aim  was  to  get 
the  barley  dry  as  quickly  as  possible,  so  that  it  might 
be  subject  as  little  as  possible  to  the  rains  and  dews 


BARLEY  AND  IIYE.  185 

before  reaching  the  stack.  The  severity  of  the  beards 
and  the  shortness  of  the  straw  made  it  almost  impos- 
sible to  bind  by  hand.  With  the  self-binder  it  is  the 
easiest  and  pleasantest  of  our  cereal  crops  to  bind.  The 
shocking  is  now  the  most  unpleasant  operation. 

Barley  of  as  good  color  cannot  be  obtained  when 
the  sheaves  are  bound  as  when  they  are  left  open, 
chiefly  because  it  is  necessary  to  allow  it  to  be  longer 
exposed  to  the  weather  before  stacking.  For  malting 
purposes,  especially,  barley  should  be  thoroughly  ripe 
so  that  all  the  kernels  will  germinate  at  the  same  time. 

The  barley  plant  is  generally  rather  free  from  at- 
tacks of  plant  diseases  and  insect  enemies. 
EYE. 

The  cultivation  of  rye  is  not  nearly  so  ancient  as 
that  of  wheat  and  barley.  It  was  unknown  to  the 
ancient  Egyptians.  The  ancient  Greeks  did  not  know 
it.  Its  introduction  into  the  Roman  Empire  was  hardly 
earlier  than  the  Christian  era.  The  origin  of  its 
cultivation  is  supposed  to  be  Northeastern  Europe. 

Within  modern  times  rye  was  formerly  a  more  im- 
portant crop.  Even  as  late  as  the  middle  of  the  pres- 
ent century  rye  was  said  to  have  formed  the  principal 
sustenance  of,  at  least,  one-third  the  population  of 
Europe,  this  one-third  inhabiting  the  northern  half  of 
Europe,  barley  taking  its  place  in  the  countries  nearer 
the  Mediterranean.  It  was  usually  sown  with  wheat 
and  is  yet  to  a  large  extent  mixed  with  wheat  in  grind- 
ing, and  the  [^resulting  flour  is  called  meslin.  The 
mixture  of  corn  and  rj'^e  for  bread  was  common  in  New 
England.  Relatively  lye  was  formerly  much  more 
important  in  England  and  the  United  States. 

Production, — The  amount  grown  in  the  world  is 


180        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

yet  very  large.  It  has  been  estimated  at  about  1,200 
million  bushels,  or  about  three- fifths  that  of  wheat. 
One- half  this  quantity  is  raised  in  Russia,  while 
about  five-sixths  of  all  the  rye  raised  in  the  world  is 
raised  in  Russia,  Germany  and  Austro-Hungary. 
Russia  raises  more  rye  than  the  United  States  does 
wheat.  In  France  and  England  it  now  holds  a  sub- 
ordinate position. 

The  average  annual  acreage  in  the  United  States 
during  the  past  decade  has  been  only  about  two 
million,  or  a  trifle  less  than  that  of  barley,  with  an 
average  yield  per  acre  of  12  bushels,  at  62  cents  per 
bushel,  making  the  least  average  value  per  acre  of 
any  of  our  cereals,  considering  the  grain  only.  Penn- 
sylvania, New  York  and  New  Jersey  raise  over  one- 
fourth  this  quantity,  while  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  Kan- 
sas, Iowa  and  Nebraska  raise  about  one-half  the  crop. 
In  the  eastern  states  especially  the  straw  is  an  im- 
portant item  in  its  culture.  Near  the  large  cities  it  is 
put  to  various  uses  which  are  made  of  straw,  particu- 
larly where  long,  straight,  unbroken  straw  is  needed. 
The  manufacture  of  paper  from  rye  straw  is  also  an 
important  item,  a  paper  mill  becoming  the  center  of 
its  culture  for  this  purpose.  A  ton  of  straw  is  an  or- 
dinary yield  per  acre,  and  ten  dollars  is  a  common 
price  per  ton  in  eastern  paper,  mills. 

The  use  of  the  grain  is  confined  almost  entirely  to 
the  making  of  bread  and  spirituous  liquors.  Fifteen 
to  20  bushels  per  acre  is  a  fair,  and  20  to  30  a  good 
crop,  for  most  parts  of  the  country. 

In  the  western  states  rye  is  frequently  grown 
where  winter  wheat  is  a  precarious  crop,  as  it  is  an 
advantageous  distribution  of  labor  to  sow  a  fall  crop, 


BAELEY  AND  EYE.  187 

and  even  where  wheat  is  grown  somewhat  the  fact 
that  it  ripens  before  wheat  lengthens  the  grain  har- 
vest, which  is  often  desirable.  As  a  soiling  crop  and 
as  a  crop  for  green- manuring  it  has  been  highly  es- 
teemed. Indeed,  in  any  thorough  system  of  soiling 
it  is  almost  an  essential  as  furnishing  green  food  un- 
til clover  is  large  enough  to  cut.  While  there  is 
evidence  which  tends  to  show  that  the  yield  of  green 
rye  used  as  a  soiling  crop  is  not  so  great  as  that  of 
medium  red  clover,  and  that  it  is  less  rich  in  albu- 
minoids, yet  in  practice  it  has  been  found  very  satis- 
factory- This  is  especially  true  in  the  production  of 
milk  for  city  delivery,  where  it  is  important  that  the 
milk  be  acceptable  to  the  taste.  There  are  many  ways 
in  which  rye  may  form  and  does  form  an  important, 
although  subordinate  part,  of  a  system  of  mixed 
husbandry. 

Composition. — Analyses  show  that  rye  in  the 
kernels  is  less  nutritious  than  wheat,  and  that  the  dif- 
ference in  their  respective  flour  is  still  greater.  Kye 
bran  is  much  richer  in  albuminoids  than  wheat  bran. 
Coarse  rye  bread  is  more  nutritious  than  fine  rye 
bread.  Fine  rye  bread  is  less  nutritious  than  line 
white  bread.  On  the  European  continent,  where  coarse 
rye  bread  is  largely  eaten,  it  has  always  been  considered 
more  nutritious  than  wheat  bread. 

Rye  is  not  so  variable  as  wheat  in  chemical  compo- 
sition and  is  not  very  susceptible  to  climatic  condi- 
tions. In  structure  it  is  more  like  wheat  than  any 
other  cultivated  plant. 

Climate. — Rye  is  a  very  hardy  plant.  It  stands 
severe  winters  better  than  wheat.  It  is  naturally  a 
plant  of  cold  climate,  just  as  barley  is  one  of  com- 
paratively warm  climate. 


188        THE  SOILS  AND  CEOPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

There  is  only  one  species  of  rye  {Secale  cereale) 
and  not  many  recognized  varieties.  There  are  both 
spring  and  winter  varieties,  the  latter  being  sown 
almost  exclusively. 

^oil. — Rye  is  adapted  to  light,  sandy  soil.  It  will 
thrive  on  much  poorer  soils  than  wheat,  corn  or  bar- 
ley. This  is  so  well  recognized  that  the  expression,  "it 
is  too  poor  to  grow  rye,"  is  used  to  indicate  extreme 
poverty  of  the  soil.  Professor  Brewer  says  that  the  feel- 
ing that  poor  soil  and  the  growth  of  rye  are  connected, 
prevents  many  farmers  raising  it  for  purely  senti- 
mental reasons.  Such  a  sentiment  in  the  west  has  not 
been  observed  although  a  similar  sentiment  seems  to 
exist  in  parts  of  Pennsylvania  with  reference  to  buck- 
wheat. 

Culture. — The  same  principles  apply  to  the  pre- 
paration of  seed- bed  and  the  seeding  of  rye  as  in  the 
case  of  winter  wheat.  Ordinarily,  wifciere  both  wheat 
and  rye  are  sown,  the  rye  is  sown  first.  One  and  one- 
half  to  two  bushels  are  sown,  preferably  drilled,  per 
acre.  It  may  be  sown  in  standing  corn  and  used  for 
pasturage  and  afterward  plowed  under  for  green  ma- 
nure. It  should  not  be  sown  until  the  corn  is  suf- 
ficiently matured  to  allow  access  of  the  sun.  If  sown 
earlier  the  shade  of  the  corn  retards  its  growth  so 
that  no  advantage  is  derived  from  the  earlier  sowing. 

Plant  Diiseaseis. — Rye  is  not  particularly  subject 
to  insect  attacks  but  is  subject  to  a  plant  disease  which 
needs  special  mention.  Ergot,  known  also  as  spurred 
or  horned  rye,  is  readily  recognized  by  the  very  much 
enlarged  and  changed  appearance  of  the  kernel, 
caused  by  the  growth  of  the  fruiting  spores.  Rye 
containing  ergot  should  not  be  fed  to  animals  or  eaten 


BARLEY  AND  RYE,  189 

by  persons,  because  of  the  serious  effect  which  may 
follow  from  such  use.  Rye  containing  ergot  should 
not  be  sown  and  land  producing  ergot  should  be  used 
for  some  other  crop. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

GRASSES. 

History. — The  cultivation  of  wheat,  corn,  oats, 
barley  and  rye  is  very  ancient;  that  of  wheat  and  bar- 
ley perhaps  antedating  the  others.  The  sowing  of 
grass  and  forage  crops  is  of  comparatively  recent 
origin. 

Permanent  pastures  have  existed  for  many  centuries, 
in  the  civilized  countries,  but  the  custom  of  sowing 
grass  seed  to  produce  pasturage  and  hay  is 
scarcely  a  hundred  years  old.  The  lack  of  any 
cultivated  grasses  was  one  of  the  difficulties  that  the 
early  colonists  had  to  contend    with  in  this  country. 

The  introduction  of  red  clover  into  England  did 
not  take  place  till  1633 ;  that  of  white  or  Dutch  clover, 
not  till  1700.  Of  the  natural  grasses  our  well  known 
timothy  was  first  brought  into  cultivation  in  this 
country,  and  it  was  not  cultivated  in  Eagland  until 
1760.  The  culture  of  orchard  grass  was  first  intro- 
duced into  England  from  Virginia  in  1764.  There  is 
no  evidence  of  any  systematic  or  artificial  cultivation 
of  grasses  there  until  the  introduction  of  perennial 
rye  grass  in  1677,  and  no  other  variety  of  grass-seed 
appeared  to  have  been  sown  for  many  years,  not,  in- 
deed till  toward  the  close  of  the  last  century,  upon 
the  introduction  of  timothy  and  orchard  grass.* 

The  average  weight  of  cattle  and  sheep  sold  in 
1710  in  Smithfield  Market,  which  ia  many  senses 
bears  the  same  relation  to  England  as  the  Chicago 
Stock-Yard   market    does   ta   America,   was:    beeves 

*"A  Hundred  Years  Prog.ess,"  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  1872,  p.  277. 
190 


GBASSES.  101 

370  lb.,  calves  50  lb.,  sheep  281b.,  lambs  18  lb.  That 
the  improvement  in  grass  culture  has  in  a  large  mea- 
sure made  possible  the  wonderful  improvement  in 
stock  since  that  time  cannot  be  doubted. 

Production. — Grass  is  not  only  the  greatest  of 
all  our  crops,  but  the  greatest  source  of  wealth  of 
any  single  crop.  There  were  35  million  acres  of  hay 
harvested  annually  during  the  past  decade  against  37 
million  acres  of  wheat.  The  average  value  of  an  acre  of 
wheat  was  19.97,  while  the  value  of  an  acre  of  hay 
was  $11.09,  so  that  the  total  value  of  the  hay  crop 
was  389  million  dollars,  against  372  million  dollars 
for  wheat. 

Eleven  per  cent  of  the  total  farm  area,  or  about  60 
million  acres,  was  in  permanent  pastures  an4  meadows. 
This  is  exclusive  of  pastures  and  meadows  in  rotation, 
of  woodland  pastures  or  ranches  beyond  the  western 
border  of  the  pioneer  homesteader. 

In  1890  there  were  53  million  cattle  and  44  million 
sheep.  If  we  do  not  consider  the  horses,  mules  and 
swine  and  allow  one  acre  of  pasture  for  each  animal 
of  the  ox-kind  of  whatever  age,  and  one  acre  for  five 
sheep  of  any  age,  we  would  have  62  million  acres  of 
pasturage. 

It  is  probably  entirely  within  bounds  to  say  that 
there  are  as  many  acres  of  grass  land  for  pasturage 
and  hay,  exclusive  of  ranches,  as  there  are  of  corn  and 
oats  raised  annually. 

A  large  j)roportion  of  the  land  devoted  to  pasturage 
is,  for  one  reason  or  another,  not  well  adapted  to  till- 
age crops.  The  land  is  either  too  uneven  or  too 
stony  to  be  easily  tilled,  or  is  broken  by  streams,  or 
more  or  less  covered  with  trees. 


19a       THE  SOILS  AND  CBOPS  OF  THE  FAllM. 

In  the  west  large  areas  are  grazed  in  advance  of 
approaching  cultivation,  or  in  regions  where  the  rain- 
fall has  not  been  considered  sufficient  for  successful 
cereal  production.  The  native  grasses  of  the  plains 
produce  a  nutritious  diet,  although  often  scanty  as 
compared  with  the  grass  produced  in  cultivated 
regions.  It  has  not  been  uncommon  for  a  rancher  to 
control  25  acres  for  each  head  of  cattle  that  he  raised. 

Permanent  pastures  are  not  the  rule  in  this  coun- 
try on  land  capable  of  easy  tillage.  Occasionally, 
but  not  often,  there  will  be  found  a  piece  of  tillable 
land  in  the  older  settled  regions  which  has  never 
been  broken,  but  has  been  constantly  in  pasture  since 
it  was  in  prairie  grasses,  tame  grasses  having  sup- 
planted the  wild  ones.  As  a  matter  of  convenience 
also,  such  as  proximity  to  farm  buildings,  land  is  kept 
more  or  less  permanently  in  pasture.  The  rule  in  this 
country,  however,  is  to  make  the  grass  on  the  tillable 
lands  a  part  of  a  more  or  less  systematic  rotation  of 
crops. 

In  England  it  is  quite  the  reverse.  There  are  many 
pastures  in  that  country  which  have  been  down  so 
long  that  there  is  no  record  of  the  date  of  seeding. 
The  land  was  once  cultivated,  however,  as  is  shown  by 
the  furrow  marks  which  still  remain.  There  they 
consider  that  the  pastures  improve  from  century  to 
century. 

The  acreage  of  permanent  pasturage  has  increased 
considerably  in  Great  Britain  during  the  past  quarter 
of  a  century,  while  the  acreage  of  grain  crops  has 
been  diminished. 

Manure. — The  value  of  grass  crops,  besides  their 
intrinsic  worth  as  a  crop,  is  in  maintaining  the  fer- 


I 


GRASSES.  193 

tility  of  the  soil.  There  is  a  Flemish  proverb,  "No 
grass,  no  cattle;  no  cattle,  no  manui'e;  no  manure,  no 
crops."  Constant  pasturage  by  cattle  not  otherwise 
fed  may  slowly  reduce  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  A 
crop  of  hay  will  remove  more  of  the  "precious"  ele- 
ments than  will  the  grain  of  a  crop  of  wheat.  Selling 
hay  has  not  been  considered  by  many,  therefore,  as 
good  farm  practice.  Of  late  years,  however,  the  prac- 
tice of  selling  hay  has  been  looked  on  with  more  favor, 
both  because  it  has  been  relatively  more  profitable 
than  grain  crops,  and  because  it  has  not  been  found 
in  practice  to  be  harder  on  land  than  selling  grain 
crops.  The  fact  is  it  is  not  what  a  crop  takes  off  the 
soil  but  what  it  leaves  in  the  soil  when  it  is  taken  off 
that  determines  whether  it  depletes  the  fertility  of  the 
soil. 

Probably  there  is  no  way,  considering  the  expense 
involved,  of  so  profitably  manuring  land  as  by  top- 
dressing  grass  lands.  Stable  manure  has  been  applied 
to  pasture  and  to  meadows  as  a  top-dressing  with 
good  results,  applying  it  lightly,  say  ten  loads  per 
acre.  It  does  not  seem  to  injure  materially  the  pala- 
tability  of  the  pasture  grass.  With  hay  crops,  there 
is  danger,  if  not  well  spread,  of  getting  the  manure 
raked  up  with  the  subsequent  crop  of  hay. 

Fattening  animals  on  pasture,  or  feeding  grain  food 
to  milch  cows  while  on  pasture,  increases  the  fertility 
of  the  soil  by  returning  more  to  it  than  is  taken  from 
it.  Although  the  manure  is  not  as  well  distributed  as 
if  the  land  was  top-dressed,  there  is  no  expense  for 
spreading. 

Experiments  have  been  made  by  Lawes  and  Gilbert 
which  show  that  different  kinds  of   fertilizers   favor 


194        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FAEM. 

different  grasses  and  clovers.  They  find  that  the 
most  coinplex  herbage  occurs  on  unmanured  lands; 
that  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  increase  the  propor- 
tion of  leguminous  plants;  nitrogen  and  yard  manure 
increase  the  proportion  o^  grasses  proper.  The  yield 
of  hay  was  increased  more  by  the  use  of  yard  manure 
and  nitrogen  than  by  the  use  of  mineral  fertilizers. 

It  is  evident  that  if  different  kinds  of  fertilizers  fa- 
vor different  pasture  plants,  the  character,  as  well  as 
the  quantity  of  the  pasturage,  may  be  affected  by  the 
kinds  of  food  fed  to  the  stock  which  feed  upon  it. 
The  kinds  and  purposes  for  which  the  stock  are  used 
may  affect  the  character  of  the  pasture  for  a  similar 
reason. 

deeding;. — The  usual  method  of  sowing  grass  seed 
(using  the  term  in  its  general  and  not  ibs  botanical 
sense),  is  to  sow  with  grain  crops.  Undoubtedly  this 
is  good  practice  for  most  regions.  Usually  no  crop 
of  hay  can  be  harvested  the  first  year.  If  sown  alone 
the  land  is  not  sufficiently  shaded  by  the  grass  to  pre- 
vent the  growth  of  weeds,  which  it  is  necessary  to  mow 
at  considerable  expense.  The  crop  of  hay  the  suc- 
ceeding year  is  no  better  than  if  grain  had  been  sown 
with  the  crop  the  preceding  year.  This  is  especially 
true  of  our  leading  hay  crops,  timothy,  medium  red 
clover,  mammoth  red.  clover  and  red  top.  A  crop  of 
grain,  also,  is  obtained  at  little  additional  expense. 

In  some  regions,  however,  timothy  sown  alone  in 
fall  will  produce  a  fair  cropof  hay  the  following  sea- 
son. When  sown  with  wheat,  it  produces  so  much 
hay  as  ta  interfere  with  the  harvesting  of  the  crop,  as 
well  as  materially  reduce  the  yield  of  wheat.  In  such 
regions  the  custom  is  to  sow  the  timothy  alone. 


^Ui^'i^  '^^^'' 


GEASSES.  195 

These  localities  are  the  exception  rather  than  the 
role.  Generally  the  practice  of  sowing  the  grass  seed 
with  the  grain  crop  is  based  on  sound  business  prin- 
ciples. 

The  desirability  of  sowing  two  or  more  kinds  of 
grass  seed  together  must  depend  largely  upon  the 
adaptability  of  the  grasses  to  the  locality  and  the 
purpose  for  which  the  crop  is  grown. 

The  plants  should  mature  at  about  the  same  time. 
It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  rule,  that  for  hay  it  does 
not  pay  to  grow  one  plant  with  another  when  it  is  not 
in  itself  adapted  to  the  conditions  uader  which  it  is 
grown  when  sown  alone.  If  it  does  not  pay  to  sow 
alone  it  will  not  pay  to  sow  with  another  crop.  The 
introduction  of  such  a  plant  reduces  the  yield,  by  oc- 
cupying land  which  could  have  been  more  profitably 
occupied  by  a  plant  adapted  to  the  conditions  existing 
there.  In  this  respect  it  is  a  weed.  It  is  a  plant 
out  of  place. 

Roots  never  fully  occupy  the  soil.  Those  of  differ- 
ent plants  occupy  different  portions  of  it.  The  roots 
of  timothy  grow  near  the  surface.  Glover  roots  grow 
deeper.  Thus  to  a  certain  extent  they  do  not  inter- 
fere with  each  other.  When  medium  red  clover 
is  sown  with  timothy  the  former  usually  dies  after 
the  second  crop,  leaving  the  decaying  roots  and  stems 
to  furnish  their  acquired  fertility  to  the  timothy  and 
succeeding  crops.  The  holes  left  by  the  decaying 
roots  may  perhaps  in  some  cases  improve  the  mechan- 
ical condition  of  the  soil. 

In  some  localities  timothy  does  not  reach  its  'best 
development  until  it  has  been  down  two  or  three 
years.      In   the   meantime   the   clover   may    occupy 


1%   THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

a  portion  of  the  ground  with  no  serious  ultimate  dis- 
advantage apparently  to  the  timothy. 

The  seeding  with  a  miscellaneous  mixture  of  grass 
seeds  of  varieties  of  little  or  no  value  when  sown 
alone,  has  neither  practical  nor  experimental  evidence 
in  this  country  to  commend  it.  The  seeding  of  lim- 
ited quantities  of  several  varieties  merely  to  add  va- 
riety may  be  justifiable. 

For  pasturage  several  varieties  may  be  desirable  in 
order  to  furnish  a  succession  of  herbage  throughout 
the  season.  The  chief  difficulty  in  America  is  to  find 
varieties  adapted  to  our  soil  and  climate  which  will 
do  this. 

The  time  of  seeding  will  depend  largely  upon  the 
climate  and  the  variety  and  will  be  discussed  under 
varieties. 

Grass  seeds  must  not  be  sown  so  deeply  as  cereals. 
The  smaller  the  seeds  the  shallower  they  must  be 
sown.  They  have  less  starch  with  which  to  support 
the  plant  until  it  is  up.  The  plant  is  so  much  more 
delicate  that  it  cannot  overcome  the  resistance  of  the 
soil.  These  facts  make  a  well-prepared  seed-bed  or 
a  great  waste  of  seed  imperative. 

Much  seed  is  sown  without  any  covering,  although 
a  light  covering  is  generally  advantageous.  Probably 
better  average  results  would  be  obtained  with  deeper 
covering  than  is  usually  practiced,  if  the  seed-bed  is 
carefully  prepared.  In  continued  moist,  rainy 
weather  the  covering  is  not  important. 

The  great  difficulty  in  securing  a  stand  is  from  the 
drying  of  the  surface  soil  just  when  the  seeds  are 
sprouting  and  the  plants  are  becoming  es^jablished. 
The  seeds  being  so  near  the  surface  the  soil  may  in 
a  few  days  become  dry  enough  to  kill  the  plants. 


GRASSES.  197 

The  quantity  of  seed  that  it  has  been  found  neces- 
sary in  practice  to  sow  is  very  much  more  than  is 
theoretically  necessary  for  a  perfect  stand.  In  field 
culture  only  a  small  portion  of  the  seeds  sown  pro- 
duce mature  plants. 

This  may  be  illustrated  by  giving  the  number  of 
seeds  per  square  foot  where  a  given  number  of 
pounds  are  sown  per  acre.  Many  more  might  be 
given  but  the  following  list  will  suffice : 

Lbs.  seed         No.  seeds 
Name.  sown  per  per  sq. 

acre.  foot. 

Timothy 15  490 

Red  top 30  2850 

Orchard  grass 35  370 

Kentucky  blue  grass 40  2000 

Meadow  foxtail 40  915 

Fall  meadow  oat  grass 40  140 

Meadow   fescue 30  190 

Sheep's  fescue 30  540 

Sweet  vernal  grass 30  440 

Perennial  rye  grass 60  335 

Italian  rye  grass 60  380 

Medium  red  clover 10  85 

Mammoth  red  clover 10  75 

Alsike  clover 10  l50 

White  clover 10  200 

Alfalfa 10  55 

The  rate  of  seeding  timothy  varies  from  nine  to 
fifteen  pounds  per  acre,  thus  making  from  300  to  500 
seeds  to  the  square  foot.  The  rate  of  seeding  clover 
may  vary  from  six  to  ten  pounds,  making  from  50  to 
85  seeds  per  square  foot.  This  quantity  has  not  been 
found  too  much  in  practice. 

This  of  course,  shows  the  crudeness  of  the  present 
method  of  seeding.  The  greater  delicacy  of  the 
smaller  seeds  is  also  well  illustrated.     This  is,  in  part, 


)  i  U 


198        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

due  to  the  great  lack  of  vitality  of  the  smaller  seeds. 
Many  of  the  smaller  seeds  sold  are  incapable  of 
growing  under  the  most  favorable  conditions. 

Harvesting. — The  proper  time  to  harvest  hay  is 
manifestly  when  the  largest  quantity  of  the  best  qual- 
ity can  be  secured,  provided  the  expense  is  not  thereby 
increased.  The  quantity  may  be  sacrificed  to  improve 
quality.  Quality  may  be  sacrificed  to  increase  the 
yield  or  to  decrease  expense  in  harvesting.  The  ex- 
pense and  risk  of  securing  timothy  may  be  greater  if 
it  is  cut  early,  as  it  requires  more  handling  and  longer 
exposure  in  curing  than  if  cut  late. 

If  hay  is  to  be  marketed  it  is  important  to  distin- 
guish between  food  value  and  market  value.  A  ton 
of  early  cut  hay  may  contain  more  nutrients  than  a 
ton  of  late  cut  hay.  As  a  food  iox  milch  cows  the 
former  would  doubtless  be  better  than  the  latter.  •  Yet 
the  later  cut  timothy  hay  may  have  the  higher  market 
value. 

.Growth  signifies  an  increase  of  weight.  A  crop  of 
grass  increases  in  weight  of  dry  substance  until  it  is 
ripe.  There  may  be  a  greater  loss  in  weight  in  the 
matured  plant  from  the  loss  of  seed,  in  the  case  of 
timothy,  or  in  the  loss  of  leaves  and  finer  parts  in 
the  case  of  clover,  than  if  cut  earlier.  When  ripe  the 
hay  is  practically  straw. 

A  summary  of  experiments  made  in  this  country 
shows  that  there  ife  an  appreciable  increase  of  yield 
of  the  true  grasses  from  the  period  of  full  bloom  until 
seeds  are  formed.  There  is  an  increase  of  all  the  food 
nutrients,  but  the  increase  is  most  marked  in  the 
crade  fibre,  starch,  sugar  and  allied  substances.  With 
timothy,  orchard  grass  and  meadow  fescue  an  increase 


QuA^vvwf    14- 


GRASSES.  199 

has  been  found  in  some  instances  of  one-fourth,  from 
the  period  of  full  bloom  until  seeds  were  formed. 

With  the  clovers,  there  has  been  found  a  decrease 
in  all  the  nutrients,  with  the  exception  of  crude  fibre, 
in  which  there  is  sometimes  an  appreciable  increase. 
The  loss  of  the  leaves  and  finer  parts  in  handling 
while  curing  is  sometimes  sufficient  to  render  the  clo- 
ver hay  well  nigh  worthless.  There  is  both  a  loss  of 
weight  and  loss  in  quality. 

A  farmer  with  150  acres  of  hay  to  harvest  cannot 
harvest  it  all  at  the  theoretically  best  time.  If  he  sells 
part  of  his  hay  it  is  prudent  to  sell  the  later  cut  hay. 
It  has  less  food  value,  pound  for  pound,  especially  for 
growing  stock  and  milch  cows.  In  many  localities  it 
has  a  greater  market  value.  In  such  cases  it  is  usu- 
ally intended  for  matured  horses,  for  which  purpose 
it  is  better  suited. 

The  aim  in  curing  a  fodder  crop  is  to  preserve  the 
nutrient  elements  with  the  least  loss,  and  in  as  di- 
gestible and  palatable  a  form  as  may  be.  In  practice, 
it  is  desired  to  secure  bright  clean  hay. 

The  quality  may  be  reduced  by  the  direct  washing 
and  dissolving  by  rains;  by  bleaching,  through  the 
alternate  wetting  by  rains  and  dews,  just  as  linen  is 
bleached;  by  becoming  musty  through  heating  or  fer- 
mentation, or  by  the  loss  of  the  more  delicate  and 
more  valuable  pai'ts,  as  the  leaves,  when  the  hay  is 
too  thoroughly  dried. 

As  before  indicated  the  latter  is  an  important 
reason  why  the  quality  of  clover  is  improved  by  cur- 
ing in  shocks.  When  it  is  spread  thinly  on  the  ground 
the  leaves  become  dry  much  sooner  than  the  stems, 
and  every  time  the  clover  is   handled  the  leaves  are 


200        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM, 

broken  off  and  lost.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  clo- 
ver is  put  in  shocks  before  the  leaves  become  dry,  the 
stems  and  leaves  transpire  or  evaporate  the  water 
through  the  leaves,  much  as  they  do  when  the  plant  is 
growing.  The  moisture  of  the  stems  passes  off 
through  the  leaves.  This  is  the  sweating  of  hay. 
The  water  collects  on  the  outer  surface  of  the  stems 
and  leaves,  because  it  is  imprisoned  there  by  the  sur- 
rounding material. 

It  is  not  feasible  in  many  places,  however,  to  cure 
hay  in  the  shock,  on  account  of  the  extra  labor  neces- 
sary. Much  hay  is  now  put  in  the  barn  or  stack  on 
the  day  after  it  is  cut.  Hay  rakes,  loaders  and  forks 
make  it  possible  to  do  this  with  but  little  hand  labor, 
while  if  put  in  shock  much  hand  work  is  necessary. 

On  the  other  hand,  where  only  a  limited  quantity 
is  to  be  handled,  it  is  often  more  convenient  and  more 
economical  to  put  the  hay  in  shock.  The  method 
of  handling  hay  depends  much  upon  circumstances, 
the  main  element  being  the  cost  of  a  given  method 
under  given  conditions. 

Other  things  equal,  the  less  the  hay  is  handled  the 
better  the  quality,  as  at  every  movement  some  of  the 
finer  parts  may  be  lost. 


i 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

GRASSES. 

Varieties. — Probably  uofc  one  farmer  in  a  thous- 
and east  of  the  one -hundredth  meridian  in  the  United 
States  knows  any  other  cultivated  grass  by  name 
Ihan  Timothy,  Red  top  and  Kentucky  blue  grass,  or 
any  other  clover  than  medium  red  clover  and  white 
clover.  Fortunate  is  the  farmer  who  has  no  need  to 
know  any  other. 

There  are  considerable  areas  of  the  United  States, 
however,  in  which  none  of  these  thrive  particularly 
well,  notably  the  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  States,  and 
much  of  that  vast  area  west  of  the  one -hundredth 
meridian. 

Probably  in  no  other  country  are  the  cultivated 
grasses  and  clovers  grown  in  such  purity  as  in  the 
United  States.  Yet  a  considerable  part  of  herbage 
of  this  country  consists  of  native  grasses  and  forage 
plants. 

The  herbage  of  the  ranges  is  composed  of  a  large 
number  of  species  of  grasses  and  grass -like  plants. 
These  grasses  have  the  common  characteristics  of 
growing  in  a  dry  climate  and  producing  a  nutritious 
herbage  which  retains  its  nutritious  qualities  when 
dried  standing.  This  is  probably  in  part  due  to  the 
climate  rather  than  to  the  kind  of  grasses.  Fermen- 
tive  and  putrefactive  changes  of  all  kind  take  place 
less   rapidly  than  in  a  moist  climate. 

The  most  common  grasses  of  this  character  on  the 
Great  Plains  are    Grama  or   Mesquite  grass  [Boute- 

201 


202        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 


loua  oligostachya ),  Buffalo  grass  {Buchloe  dacty- 
loides ),  and  the  bunch  grasses  of  which  those  belong- 
ing to  the  genus  Stipa  and  to  the  genus  Oryzopsis 
are  leading  types.  Koeleria  cristata,  Deschampsia 
Coespitosa,  and  several  species 
of  the  genus  Festuca  are  wide- 
ly diffused. 

Blue  -  joint     (Calamagrosti^^  s 
canadensis)  is  one  of  the  best 
and  most  productive  on  moist 
soils  and  in  cool  climates. 

There  is  space  for  only  a 
brief  description  of  some  of  the 
better  known  cultivated  species. 
Timothy.  —  Herd's  grass, 
meadow  cat's- tail  grass,  are 
common  names  given  to  the 
grass  plant  known  botanically 
as  Phleum  pratense,  L.  The 
most  common  name  is  Timothy. 
Timothy  is  widely  distri- 
buted. It  is  universally  ad- 
mitted, however,  that  timothy 
was  first  brought  into  cultiva- 
tion in  this  country.  As  the 
story  goes,  Timothy  Hanson,  of 
Maryland,  first  introduced  the 
plant  from  England  in  1720. 
About  forty  years  later  Peter  Wynch  took  seed  of  it 
from  Virginia  to  England.  Its  cultivation  began 
there.  It  is  claimed  also  that  a  man  named  Herd 
found  it  growing  wild  in  a  swamp  in  New  Hamp- 
shire as   early   as   1700  and  began   its    cultivation. 


Timothy. 


^XyR/r^^^-'lupi^o 


GRASSES   ,  203 

Timothy  is  not  adapted  to  swamp  lands.  The  reason 
for  the  name  cat's -tail  grass  is  sufficiently  obvious 
from  the  appearance  of   the  head  or  spike. 

Nowhere  in  the  world  is  timothy  so  well  and  favor- 
ably known  as  in  America.  It  is  pre-eminently  the 
hay  plant  of  the  grass  family  in  the  United  States. 
No  other  plant  in  the  grass  family  compares  with  it 
in  extent  of  production  for  hay.  North  of  the  Gulf 
states  it  is  almost  exclusively  the  hay  of  commerce  in 
the  eastern  half  of  the  United  States.  Bed  top  and 
clover  hay  is  of  course,  sold  to  some  extent,  but  the 
amount  is  small  as  compared  with  timothy. 

The  great  popularity  of  timothy  as  a  hay  crop  is 
due  to  the  very  satisfactory  reason  that  it  produces 
an  abundance  of  hay  of  good  quality  over  a  large 
territory,  and  on  a  considerable  variety  of  soils.  It 
is  easily  and  cheaply  grown  and  the  hay  can  be  har- 
vested cheaply  and  with  comparatively  small  risk  to 
quality.  The  fact  that  it  can  usually  be  put  into  the 
bai'n  or  stack  so  soon  after  it  is  cut  makes  it  possible 
to  handle  it  with  a  minimum  amount  of  labor,  and 
decreases  the  risk  of  having  the  hay  spoiled  during 
inclement  weather. 

It  takes  from  nine  to  fifteen  pounds  of  timothy 
seed  to  sow  an  acre,  while  with  most  of  the  other 
grasses  grown  for  hay  from  thirty  to  forty  pounds  are 
required  with  present  method  of  seeding.  As  timothy 
often  produces  from  six  to  ten  bushels  of  seed  per 
acre,  the  price  per  bushel  is  moderate.  The  price  of 
a  bushel  of  timothy  and  a  bushel  of  orchard  grass 
seed  is  about  the  same,  say  $1.50  per  bushel.  One- 
third  of  a  bushel,  or  fifteen  pounds  of  timothy,  would 


204         THE  SOILS  A^D  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

be  as  good  a  seeding  as  two  and  one-half  bushels,  or 
35  pounds,  of  orchard  grass.  In  other  words,  the 
cost  of  seed  to  sow  an  acre  of  orchard  grass  would 
be  seven  and  one-half  times  as  great  as  to  seed  an 
acre  of  timothy.^ 

Timothy  produces  but  one  crop  in  a  season,  and 
does  not  produce  much  aftermath.  It  often  grows 
very  little  for  a  couple  of  months  after  the  crop  is 
harvested.  In  dry,  hot  seasons  the  lack  of  vegetation, 
especially  when  mown  close  to  the  ground,  causes  the 
plant  to  be  injured.  It  is  better,  therefore,  where 
such  danger  exists,  to  mow  rather  high. 

Timothy  does  not  start  to  grow  early  in  the  spring, 
which,  coupled  with  the  last  mentioned  feature,  and 
the  fact  that  if  not  cropped  closely  it  becomes  coarse 
^nd  woody,  makes  it  less  _djlsir able  for  pasturage 
than  some  other  grasses.  In  some  localities  it  does 
not  seem  to  be  strictly  perennial.  That  is,  it  disap- 
pears without  being  replaced  by  other  grasses  when 
constantly  pastured.  In  England,  Sutton  says,  the 
only  objection  to  it  for  a  rotation  is  the  trouble  of  get- 
ting rid  of  it  when  the  meadow  is  broken  up. 

Timothy  is  what  is  called  a  late  grass, being  ready  to 
cut  in  July.  This  is  a  great  advantage  for  this  coun- 
try as  it  can  be  much  more  easily  cured  and  with  so 
much  less  risk  of  injury  to  quality  than  if  it  was  cut  in 
June,  both  because  it  cures  more  quickly  and  because 
there  are  in  general  a  less  number  of  days  of  rain-fall 
in  July  than  in  June. 

It  has  been  customary  to  recommend  that  timothy 
should  be  cut  in  bloom  or  just  passed  bloom.  The 
following  table  gives  the  yield  per  acre  of  the  dry  mat- 
ter or  water- free  substance  of   timothy  cut  at  dif- 


7^  ^/  't^^^^^  ^  ^^^^iff^^-^ 


:^^M^fd^^^i^^^^^f^'-^  v^^^^^^i^ 


^^V^,.^  '<^^  M^u:^^^^- 


SiJ- 


GRASSES.  205 

fereiit  dates  as  determined  by  three  experiment  sta- 
tions: 

Connecticut.      Illinois.    Pennsyl- 
vania. 

Well  headed  out 2,750  

Full  bloom 3,300  3,285  2,585 

Out  of  bloom 3  115  3,425  

Seed  in  dough 4,010  

Seed  nearly  ripe 3,615  4,065  3,065 

There  was  not  only  an  increase  in  the  total  weight 
of  dry  substance  in  each  instance,  but  there  was  in 
general  also  an  increase  of  each  of  the  food  nutrients, 
although  the  percentage  of  nitrogenous  matter  de- 
creased as  the  plant  became  ripe. 

Data  with  reference  to  the  digestibility  of  timothy 
at  different  stages  of  maturity  are  meagre,  but  the 
indications  are  that  the  digestibility  does  not  decrease 
to  any  great  extent  up  to  the  time  the  seed  is  in  the 
dough.  Practical  experience  shows  that  for  horses, 
at  least,  the  palatability   is  not  materially   decreased. 

The  indication  is,  therefore,  that  the  cutting  of  timo- 
thy may  be  safely  postponed  until  after  it  is  well 
past  bloom.  All  things  considered,  probably  when 
the  seeds  are  in  the  dough  would  be  the  best  time  to 
mow  timothy. 

Timothy  may  be  sown  either  in  the  fall  or  in  the 
spring  with  any  small  grain  that  is  sown  at  the  time. 
A  good  stand  will  be  obtained  oftener,  probably,  by 
sowing  in  the  fall.  The  seed  should  be  well  covered, 
and  probably  more  deeply  than  is  the  general  prac- 
tice. Sowing  the  seed  in  front  of  the  hoes  of  the 
wheat  drill  brings  good  average  results  in  some  local- 
ities. 

Probably  rye  is  the  best  and  oats  the  poorest  crop 
with  which  to  sow  timothy.     In  some  localities  it  la 


206        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 


sown  alone  in  the  autumn  and  a  crop  harvested  the 
following  summer. 

SLentacky  Bine  Orass — (Poa  pratensis,  L.) 
There  is  a  large  number  of  species  of  Poa  which 
grow  more  or  less  abundantly  in  this  country,  but 
the  principal  one  is  Kentucky 
blue  grass. 

Poa  pratensis  is  also 
known  as  June  grass, 
spear  grass,  green  grass, 
smooth  stalked 
meadow  grass 
and  blue  grass. 
In  some  locali- 
ties wire  grass 
(Poa  compressa) 
is  known  as  blue 
grass,  and  Ken- 
tucky blue  grass 
is  known  as  green 
grass.  This  gives 
rise  to  much  con- 
fusion and  mis- 
BLUE  Grass.  understanding, 

grass  in  such  regions  being  be- 
something  entirely  different  from 


Kentucky 
Kentucky  blue 
lieved  to  be 
either. 

Kentucky 
pasture    grass 
abundance     of 
a  wide  territory 


blue  grass  is  pre-eminently  the 
of  America.  It  produces  an 
pasturage  of  the  best  quality  over 
It   makes  a   compact   sod.      The 

leaves   are  fine,  succulent,   palatable  and  nutritious. 

It  is  one  of  the  earliest  grasses  to  start  in  the  spring 

and  one  of  the  latest  to  grow  in  the  fall. 


GRASSES.  201 

In  the  more  temperate  climates  it  makes  excellent 
winter  pasture  by  keeping  stock  off  it  a  "while  in  the 
fall.  When  thus  dried  standing  it  is  a  formidable 
rival  in  nutritive  qualities  of  the  grasses  of  the  arid 
regions. 

Its  greatest  fault  is  a  lack  of  supply  of  good  pas- 
turage during  July  and  August.  During  hot,  dry 
periods,  the  growth  almost,  if  not  entirely,  ceases. 
The  return  of  wet  weather  brings  the  apparently  dead 
grass  to  life  again,  and  it  continues  its  growth  until 
late  in  the  fall. 

It  stands  a  large  amount  of  tramping  and  very  close 
pasturage  without  injury.  On  lawns  the  close  and 
frequent  cutting  is  an  apparent  improvement.  As  a 
lawn  grass  it  is  unexcelled. 

The  plant  throws  up  seed  stalks,  usually  about  two 
feet  high  but  varying  greatly  under  different  condi- 
tions. It  ripens  seed  in  June.  The  quantity  of  hay 
produced  is  small  although  of  excellent  quality.  It 
is  seldom  cut  for  hay. 

The  plant  not  only  reproduces  by  seed,  but  spreads 
by  underground  root  stalks.  It  often  takes  possession 
of  the  soil  when  the  land  is  put  in  pasture.  Probably 
few  of  the  blue  grass  pastures  have  been  artificially 
seeded. 

For  commercial  purposes  the  seed  is  obtained  by 
stripping  the  heads  with  hand  or  horse  machines 
made  for  the  purpose.  The  heads  thus  obtained  are 
dried  in  sheds  and  afterward  cleaned  by  improved 
machinery. 

Commercial  seed  is  frequently  poor,  either  because 
it  is  stripped  when  too  green  or  is  allowed  to  heat 
after  stripping.  It  is  easier  to  strip  and  clean  when 
gathered  green. 


-208 


THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 


There  are  fourteen  pounds  of  Kentucky  blue  grass 
seed  in  a  bushel.  Two  and  one-half  bushels  per  acre 
or  about  2,000  seeds  per  square  foot  has  not  been 
found  too  much  to  sow  of  commercial  seed  when  it  is 
sown  alone.  Seed  of  good  quality  should  require 
much  less.  It  is  probably  better 
to  sow  a  small  quantity,  say  one- 
half  bushel,  with  other  grasses. 
The  blue  grass  will  spread  gradu- 
ally and  take  possession  of  the 
ground.  Even  when  sown  alone 
it  takes  possession  of  the.  soil 
slowly  and  requires  several  years 
to  produce  a  compact  sod. 

Red  Top.— The  plants  of  the 
\    *,*^S^^^^fA    genus Agrros^^s seem  quite  variable 
"V^^lAK^T)^*      and  there  is  some  dispute  as  to 
the   proper    classification    of   the 
cultivated    species.      Beal   recog- 
nizes three,  although  in  the  case 
of  two  of  them  he  says  the  speci- 
fic     difference     is     questionable. 
However   that    may   be,   what   is 
known   to   botanists    as   Agrostis 
Vulgaris,     With.,    is     commonly 
called  red  top  and  is  the  species 
generally  cultivated.       It  is  also 
known  in  some   places  as  Herd's 
Burden's  grass,  summer  dew  grass,  fine   top, 
fine  bent,  bent,  Ehode  Island  bent,  and  furze  top. 

As  a  hay  crop  it  is  next  to  timothy  in  importance 
among  the  true  grasses  in  this  country.  It  often, 
perhaps  usually,  forms  a  large  part  of  the  herbage  of 


Red  Top. 


GRASSES.  209 

permanent  meadows.  It  is  widely  distributed.  It 
bears  its  seed  in  a  panicle,  and  thus  has  a  superficial 
resemblance  to  Kentucky  blue  grass.  The  general 
observer  may  distinguish  it  from  the  latter  by  the 
purple  color  of  the  panicle  and  the  smaller  and  more 
numerous  spikelets.  It  does  not  grow  as  tall  as  timo- 
thy, but  rather  taller  than  Kentucky  blue  grass.  It 
ripens  about  the  same  time  as  timothy.  It  is  adapted 
to  low,  moist  lands  and  is  usually  grown  on  the  poorer 
lands  of  this  sort. 

It  produces  a  fairly  good  quantity  of  hay,  but  the 
quality  is  not  considered  as  good  as  timothy.  Buyers 
are  not  favorably  disposed  toward  it.  In  some  places 
where  it  grows  readily  farmers  take  the  precaution  to 
keep  it  out  of  their  timothy  meadows,  because  even  a 
little  of  it  reduces  the  market  value  of  the  hay. 

It  makes  fair  pasturage.  It  produces  a  better  sod 
and  more  pasture,  probably,  on  suitable  soils,  than 
timothy,  although  the  plants  do  not  take  possession  of 
the  soil  so  quickly.  As  a  pasture  grass  it  is  more  im- 
portant where  Kentucky  blue  grass  is  not  adapted. 

There  are  ten  pounds  of  red  top  seed  per  bushel. 
Two  to  three  bushels  are  recommended  for  seeding. 
This  is  from  two  to  three  thousand  seeds  per  square 
foot.  The  seeds  are  extremely  small  and  are  apt  to 
have  poor  vitality. 

Orchard  Grasis  or  rough  cock's  foot  (Dactylis 
glomerta,  L.)  is  a  much  praised  but  little  cultivated 
grass  in  this  country.  It  has  been  cultivated  in  this 
country,  at  least  since  1764,  when  we  are  told  it  was 
brought  into  notice  in  England  by  its  re-introduction 
from  America.  While  it  has  been  cultivated  in  this 
country  more  or  less  since  that  time,  it  has  not  been 


210        THE  SOILS  A.ND  CHOPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

known  commercially  and  is  so  little  grown  that  but 
few  farmers  know  it.  If  it  was  especially  adapted  to 
the  conditions  of  onr  agriculture  it  would  seem  that 
its  cultivation  would  have  been  universal  by  this  time. 
The  fact  that  it  has  zealous  advocates  may  indicate 
that  there  are  special  conditions  of  soil  and  climate 

over  limited  areas 
in  which  it  pro- 
duces    favorable 
results. 

Orchard  grass  pro- 
duces an  abundance  of 
leaves  early  in  the  sea- 
son, which  are  in  bunches 
or  tussocks.  It  throws 
up  seed  culms  about  as 
high  as  those  of  timothy, 
but  they  are  produced 
rather  sparingly,  especi- 
ally the  first  few  years 
after  being  sown.  The 
result  is  a  comparatively 
light  yield. 

Oechaed  Geass.— (After  Vasey.)  It  ripens  about  the 
time  of  medium  red  clover,  and  hence  is  better  in  this 
respect  for  mixing  with  medium  red  clover  than  is 
timothy.  The  abundance  of  leaves,  however,  has  a 
repressing  influence  on  the  clover  so  that  less  clover 
is  produced  than  when  the  same  amount  of  seed  is 
sown  with  timothy.  It  starts  up  with  marvelous 
rapidity  after  a  crop  is  removed  and  is  not  easily 
affected  by  drought. 

Judged   by  analyses    the    quality    of   the  hay  is 


GLASSES. 


211 


euperior  to  timothy.  The  hay  has  the  reputation  of 
being  less  readily  eaten  by  stock,  although  it  is 
claimed  this  may  be  remedied  by  cutting  it  earlier, 
For  pasture  it  does  not  take  the  place  of  Kentucky 
blue  grass,  timothy  or  red  top. 

There  ai'e   fourteen   pounds  of  seed 

in  a  bushel.      "When   sown  alone   not 

less  than    two  and    one-half    bushels 

should   be  sown  per  acre.      Otherwise 

sow  as  in  the  case  of 

timothy. 

Bermuda  Gras$i 
(Cynodon  Dactylon) 
is  "A  low,  creeping 
perennial  grass,  with  abundant 
short  leaves  at  the  base,  sending 
up  slender,  nearly  leafless,  flower 
stalks  or  culms,  which  have  three 
to  five  slender,  diverging  spikes 
at  the  summit." 

It  is  a  tropical  plant,  and  has 
no  value  north  of  the  37th  parallel. 
South  of  that  and  especially  south 
of  the  35th  par- 
allel it  is  a  most 
valuable  grass, 
both  for  hay 
and  pasture. 

It  has  been  avoided  by  farmers  because  the  roots 
take  such  a  strong  hold  upon  the  soil  as  to  make 
the  land  generally  unsuited  to  a  rotation. 

It  spreads  by  its  rooting  stems,  but  does  not  gener- 
ally   produce   seed   in   this   country.      It  is  usually 


Bermuda  Grass.— (After  Vasey.) 


212        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

propagated  by  cutting  up  the  rooting  stems  in  a  feed 
cutter  and  sowing  broadcast  and  plowing  in,  or  plant- 
ing in  rows  or  hills  like  potatoes.  It  stands  the  hot- 
test weather  and  the  severest  drought  and  makes  its 
best  growth  during  the  summer  months.  The  tops 
are  easily  killed  by  frost. 

Fescues. — There  are  many  species  of  the  genus 
Festuca.  Taller  fescue,  {Festuca  elatior,  L.,)  and 
meadow  fescue  ( Festuca  pratensis  Huds, )  are  for 
practical  purposes  very  similar.  The  former  grows 
somewhat  taller  and  coarser. 

The  manner  of  growth  is  very  much  like  Kentucky 
blue  grass.  They  produce  a  compact  sod.  They 
start  to  grow  early  in  the  spring  and  ripen  their 
seeds  in  June.  Their  seed  culms,  however,  are  con- 
siderably taller  and  look  more  like  chess  than  Ken- 
tucky blue  grass.  They  yield  a  rather  larger  quan- 
tity of  hay.  The  hay  is  of  good  quality.  They  de- 
serve a  trial  wherever  timothy  and  Kentucky  blue 
grass  are  not  well  adapted. 

Sheep  fescue  {Festuca  ovina,  L.,)  is  a  small,  low 
growing  plant  which  makes  a  compact  sod  and  is  very 
much  prized  in  Great  Britian  for  pasturing  sheep, 
especially  on  the  poorer  soils.  Vasey  says  it  and  sev- 
eral other  species  of  festuca  form  a  part  of  the  vege- 
tation on   the  ranges. 

Rye  Grasses. — The  perennial  rye  grass  ( Lolium 
perenne)  and  the  Italian  ryegrass  {Lolium  ItaUcum) 
are  much  used  in  England  both  for  hay  and  pasturage, 
the  former  being  the  oldest  and  best  known  and  the 
most  highly  esteemed.  Lolium  perenne  was  the  first 
grass  gathered  separately  for  agricultural    purposes. 

In  this  country,  while  they  have  been  repeatedly 


GEASSES.  213 

tested  they  have  not  been  much  used  and  do  not 
seem  adapted  to  our  agricultural  conditions.  They 
make  an  abundant  growth  the  same  season  the  seed  is 
sown,  and  are  good  varieties  to  sow  where  this  is  de- 
sirable. Tha  yields  the  succeeding  seasons  are  apt  to 
be  poor,  as  the  plants  do  not  seem  to  be 
permanent  in  this  country. 

Sixty  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  are  re- 
quired. The  seed  should  be  sown  very 
much  like  oats,  only  perhaps  not  as  deeply 
covered,  and  should  not  be  sown  with  a 
grain  crop.  Where  it  is  desirable  to  get 
a  piece  of  land  into  pasture  at  once  it 
might  be  advisable  to  sow  permanent  rye 
grass  in  place  of  the  grain  crop,  sowing 
also  the  other  desired  grasses. 

Tall  Meadow  Oat  Grass  (Ar- 
rhenatherum  avenaceum  Beauv)  is  one 
of  the  earliest  grasses  to  start  in  the 
spring.  It  is  a  tall  growing  grass.  It 
may  grow  five  feet  high. 

The  stems  are  rather  coarse  and  appear 
woody.  It  will  produce  a  large  yield  of 
hay.  There  is  considerable  difference  of 
opinion  as  to  its  quality,  but.  the  weight 
of  evidence  seems  to  be  that  it  is  of  poor 
quality.     The  hay  is  apt  to  be  bitter, 

Beal  states  that  he  has  raised  this  grass '  (After  Vasey.) 
on  rather  light  sandy  soil  at  Lansing,  Michigan,  for 
twelve  or  more  years  and  thinks  that  the  reason  for  the 
conflicting  opinion  is,  that  it  is  adapted  to  the  hotter, 
drier  climates,  while  the  finer  succulent  grasses  thrive 
better  in  a  moist  climate  such   as   England.     Sutton 


2U         THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

considers   it  superior    to    Italian   rye    grass.     It  is 
much  grown  in  France  under  the  name  of  ray  grass. 
Forty  pounds  of  seed  may  be  sown  per  acre  under 
the  same  conditions  as  timothy.     The  seeds  are  com- 
paratively   large     and    should    be    well 
covered.     It   is  not  always   strictly  peren- 
nial.    It  will   probably   never   be   widely 
used  in  this*  country. 

Mea«low  Fox  -  tail  (Alopecurus 
pratensis)  is  the  only  cultivated  grass 
that  it  is  at  all  possible  to  mistake  for 
timothy.  It  matures  fully  a  month  earlier, 
the  seed  clums  are  not  so  tall,  and  the 
spikes  or  heads  are  not  so  long. 

It  is  one  of  the  earliest  grasses  to  start 
in  the   spring   and  it  produces  an  abun- 
dant aftermath.     The   seed   is  expensive, 
Meadow     generally  of  poor  vitality,   with   which  it 
(iJ?er  vt^ey.)  is  difficult  to  obtain  a  stand. 

In  Great  Britain  it  is  highly  prized  for  pasturage. 
It  is  the  Kentucky  blue  grass  of  England.  It  is  sel- 
dom seen  growing  in  this  country. 


^ 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

GLOVERS. 

Use. — The  clovers  are  of  vast  importance  to  our 
agriculture.  They  are  important  as  a  part  of  a 
whole : 

1.  They  help  to  balance  our  food  ration.  The 
great  bulk  of  oui*  agricultural  productions  in  the 
United  States,  either  in  grain  or  coarse  fodder,  are 
from  plants  belonging  to  the  grass  family.  These 
plants  produce  an  abundance  of  starch  and  other  heat- 
forming  substances,  but  are  relatively  deficient  in 
albuminoids  or  muscle-forming  foods. 

The  clovers  and  other  plants  belonging  to  the 
pulse  or  clover  family  produce  in  the  whole  plant,  as 
well  as  in  the  seed,  a  large  percentage  of  the  albumi- 
noids. Feeding  these  tends  to  correct  the  otherwise 
one-sided  ration.  It  is  desirable  to  feed  growing  cat- 
tle clover  hay  with  Indian  corn,  for  the  same  reason 
that  we  eat  meat  with  potatoes.  Too  much  clover  hay 
or  too  much  meat  would  be  undesirable. 

The  following  table,  giving  the  number  of  pounds 
of  the  diiferent  nutrients  which  may  be  found  in  a 
ton,  will  show  the  contrast  between  the  grass  and  clo- 
ver families: 

*                                           GRASS  CLOVER 

FAMIIiY.  FAMILY. 

Coru.     Timothy  Pea       Clover 

Hay.  Meal.       Hay. 

Total  dry  matter  1554  1524  1791  1449 

Albuminoids 184  100  405  228 

Crude  fat 95  63  24  103 

Starch,  etc 1212  751  1022  (J09 

Fibre 36  512  287  389 

Ash 27  100  53  120 

21  r, 


216        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

2.  A  ton  of  clover  hay  contains  more  nitrogen  than 
does  a  ton  of  timothy  hay,  or  corn  fodder,  or  even 
a  ton  of  corn  or  oats.  Nitrogen  being  the  most  ex- 
pensive of  the  "precious"  elements,  the  manure  pro- 
duced from  clover  hay  is  more  valuable  than  that  pro- 
duced from  the  other  food  material. 

3.  A  crop  of  clover  leaves  in  and  on  the  soil 
a  larger  quantity  of  vegetation  than  does  the  cereal 
crops.  This  organic  matter  contains  a  large  quantity 
of  the  precious  elements,  which  become  available  with 
the  decay  of  the  vegetation.  The  land  is  thus  in 
a  more  suitable  condition  to  grow  a  succeeding  crop 
than  if  the  crop  had  not  been  grown.  Grass  crops 
also  leave  a  considerable  quantity  of  vegetation  be- 
hind them,  sometimes  a  greater  quantity  than  the 
clover  plant,  but  usually  not  so  rich  in  the  precious 
elements. 

4.  It  seems  to  be  satisfactorily  determined  that 
through  the  agency  of  the  clover  plant  the  free  but 
inert  nitrogen,  which  constitutes  about  four-fifths  of 
the  atmosphere,  may  be  converted  into  active  nitrogen ; 
that  is,  it  may  become  combined  with  oxygen. 

The  virgin  fertility  of  the  soil  was  largely  due  to 
the  nitrogen  combined  with  organic  matter.  This  fer- 
tility has  been  collected  through  countless  ages.  The 
cloverplantis  an  agency  through  which  this  fertility 
may  be  in  a  measure  maintained.  The  clover  plant  is 
only  the  indirect  source  of  this  beneficent  property.  The 
direct  power  of  converting  atmospheric,  nitrogen  into 
an  available  form  for  plant  food  lies  in  certain  low  or- 
ganized plants  called  microbes  or  bacteria,  which  arc? 
found  in  the  root  tubercles  of  clover  plants.  These 
tubercles  are  characteristic  of  the  plants  of  the  clover 
family. 


CLOVERS.  217 

5.  The  organic  matter  which  is  left  in  the  soil  also 
improves  the  mechanical  condition  of  most  soils. 
There  are  soils  which  contain  all  the  fertilizing  in- 
gredients necessary  to  a  fertile  soil,  but  which  do  not 
produce  because  of  their  mechanical  or  physical  con- 
dition. Probably  the  most  important  single  physical 
property  is  that  with  reference  to  the  retention  and 
passage  of  water  in  the  soil.  The  decay  of  vegeta- 
ble matter  modifies  this  property  to  a  considerable 
extent. 

Varieties. — The  true  clovers  (Trifolium),  includ- 
ing possibly  one  or  two  other  similarly  growing  plants, 
are  more  important  agriculturally  in  this  country  than 
the  large  number  of  other  valuable  plants  of  the  clover 
family,  because  they  are  adapted  to  general  and  profit- 
able culture  over  a  wide  range  of  territory.  A  brief 
description  of  the  more  important  is  given. 

Red  Clover  {TrifoUum  pratense,  L.)  is  also 
known  as  broad  clover,  broad  leaved  clover,  com- 
mon clover  and  meadow  trefoil,  and  also  as  medium 
red  clover,  to  distinguish  it  from  mammoth  red  clover.  . 

It  was  one  of  the  earliest  forage  plants  to  be 
brought  into  systematic  cultivation,  having  been  in- 
troduced into  England  in  1633  or  about  half  a  century 
before  perennial  rye  grass. 

Red  clover  is  a  plant  of  temperate  climate.  It  is 
widely  diffused  through  Europe.  It  is  successfnlly 
cultivated  throughout  the  United  States  ecist  of  the 
one  hundredth  meridian  and  north  of  the  Gulf  states. 
In  this  region  it  is  cultivated  for  hay  almost  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  other  clovers  and  similar  forage 
plants.  Where  it  is  grown  successfully  it  is  not  re- 
placed by  any  other  clover  or  similar  plants,  unless, 


218        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

under  some  circumstances,  the  closely  allied  species, 
mammoth  clover. 

The  plant  is  described  by  some  as  a  biennial  and 
by  others  as  a  perennial  of  a  few  years'  duration. 
The  plant  varies  considerably  in  this  and  other  re- 
spects in  different  localities.  It  is  usual  when 
timothy  and  clover  are  sown  together  for  the  first  crop 
to  be  largely  clover;  the  second  year  about  half  and 
half  clover  and  timothy,  and  third  year  largely,  if  not 
quite  wholly,  timothy.  This  is  particularly  the  case 
when  sown  with  spring  grain.  If  timothy  is  sown 
with  the  fall  grain  it  is  somewhat  more  predominant 
from  the  first. 

Red  clover  is  easily  affected  by  drought.  It  does 
not  thrive  on  wet,  undrained  land.  It  grows  on  soils 
of  all  states  of  fertility  except  the  poorest.  The  fer- 
tility of  the  soil  may  be  correctly  ascertained  by  the 
appearance  of  the  clover  plant,  assuming  a  proper 
quantity  of  rain- fall.  It  is  not  entirely  hardy,  espe- 
cially on  poorly  drained  land. 

Red  clover  produces  two  crops  annually,  one  in 
June  and  one  in  August.  The  second  crop  varies  in 
quantity  with  the  season,  the  raia-fall  being  the  con- 
trolling element.  Frequently  the  second  crop  does 
not  pay  for  cutting.  It  is  wise  to  be  able  to  pasture 
the  aftermath  of  clover  meadows.  In  some  localities 
the  second  crop  is  considered  with  disfavor;  in  others 
it  is  used  with  good  results.  Probably  the  second 
crop  is  usually  cut  when  too  ripe. 

The  first  crop  usually  contains  very  little  seed. 
The  second  crop  is  frequently  cut  for  seed.  The 
quantity  varies  greatly.  Frequently  only  half  a 
bushel,  occasionally  eight  to  ten  bushels  per  acre,  is 


CLOVERS.  219 

obtained.  Red  clover  requires  the  agency  of  some 
insect  to  produce  seed.  This  is  usually  the  bumble 
bee.  There  are  few  bumble  bees  abroad  when  the 
first  crop  is  in  bloom.  The  pollen  of  one  flower  is 
placed  on  the  stigma  of  another  flower  by  them  as 
they  visit  the  flowers  for  nectar.  The  purpose  of  the 
brightly  colored  flowers  is  to  attract  insects  for  the 
purpose  of  cross-fertilizing  the  plants. 

Darwin  aptly  says  that  the  beef  supply  of  England 
depends  upon  the  old  maids.  The  beef  supply  de- 
pends upon  the  clover,  the  clover  depends  upon  clover 
seed,  clover  seed  depends  upon  bumble  bees,  bumble 
bees  upon  field  mice,  field  mice  upon  cats.  Old  maids 
keep  cats.  Beal  says  that  it  is  not  improbable  that 
the  time  will  come  when  queen  bumble  bees  will  be 
reared,  bought  and  sold  for  their  benefit  to  the  crop 
of  clover  seed.  It  is  doubtful  whether  honey  bees  aid 
materially  in  fertilizing  medium  and  mammoth  clo- 
ver.    They  do  help  to  fertilize  white  and  alsike  clover. 

R^d  clover  should  be  sown  in  the  spring.  The 
young  plants  do  not  usually  withstand  the  winter 
when  sown  in  the  fall.  If  sown  with  spring  grain  the 
seed  should  be  covered  with  the  harrow.  Even  in  fall 
grain,  the  ground  may  be  harrowed  with  a  light  har- 
row without  injury  to  the  grain  and  to  the  benefit  of 
the  clover.     Rolling  is  usually  advisable. 

Good  judgment  is  required  as  to  the  time  of  sow- 
ing. Much  depends  on  the  season.  The  young 
plants  may  be  killed  by  a  sharp  fi-eeze,  or  by  a  dry 
spell  of  a  few  days  duration,  particularly  if  the  seed 
has  not  been  well  covered. 

In  general  drought  is  most  to  be  feared.  Hence 
early  sowing  is  usually   advisable.     Sowing  on  a  late 


220        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

snow  often  gives  good   results.     The  seeds  sink  into 
the  liquid  mud  produced  by  the  melting  snow. 

The  quantity  of  seed  varies  largely  with  the  local- 
ity. Ten  pounds  per  acre,  or  about  85  seeds  per 
square  foot,  may  be  given  as  about  the  average  when 
sown  alone.  Twice  the  quantity  is  said  to  be  sown 
in  some  localities.  When  sown  with  timothy  or  other 
grass  seed  six  pounds  will  usually  suffice. 

Mammoth  Clover  has  generally  been  consid- 
ered a  distinct  species  under  the  Latin  name  Trifo- 
lium  medium.  Sutton  denies  that  TrifoUum  medium 
or  zig-zag  clover  has  ever  been  known  in  commerce 
and  states  that  the  cow  grass  of  England  is  but  a 
perennial  variety  of  medium  red  clover. 

It  is  distinguished  from  red  clover  by  its  larger  and 
coarser  growth  and  by  its  ripening  three  to  five  weeks 
later.  Typical  specimens  have  less  hairy  stems, 
narrower  and  more  pointed  leaves,  and  more  conical 
and  darker  colored  heads,  which  may  be  raised  on 
short  stalks.  These  distinctions  are  not  well  main- 
tained. 

Mammoth  clover  ripens  about  the  time  of  timothy, 
and  is,  therefore,  in  this  respect  more  suitable  for 
sowing  with  timothy  than  is  medium  red  clover. 
When  medium  red  clover  is  sown  with  timothy  the 
crop  can  not  be  harvested  when  they  are  both  in  the 
best  condition.  The  danger  is  that  the  crop  will  be 
harvested  when  the  clover  is  too  mature  and  before 
the  timothy  has  reached  its  proper  growth.  With 
mammoth  clover  the  best  condition  of  each  can  be 
obtained.  Clover  can  generally  be  more  readily 
cured  in  July  than  in  June,  both  on  account  of  the 
greater  heat  and  drier  atmosphere. 


CLOVEKS.  221 

Mammoth  clover  usually  yields  but  one  crop  in  a 
season.  It  produces  seed  plentifully  in  this  country. 
The  seed  can  not  be  distinguished  from  that  of  me- 
dium red  clover.  One  crop  of  mammoth  clover  may 
not  yield  as  much  as  two  crops  of  medium  clover. 
The  one  crop  of  the  former  may  be  more  economical 
than  the  two  crops  of  the  latter. 

Mammoth  clover  grows  rather  coarse  on  rich  soils. 
The  quality  of  the  hay  is  in  such  cases  not  so  good  as 
that  of  medium  red  clover.  It  is  best  adapted  to 
relatively  poor  soils.  Its  deep  roots  and  coarse 
growth  gives  it  a  large  manurial  value. 

White  Clover  ( TrifoUum  reperis)  holds  the 
same  relation  to  Kentucky  blue  grass  as  red  clover 
does  to  timothy.  It  is  suitable  for  pasture  only.  For 
pastui'e  it  is,  in  connection  with  Kentucky  blue  grass, 
unexcelled.  It  is  not  largely  sown  but  finds  its  way 
into  pastures  which  are  suited  to  it.  It  is  very  un- 
even in  its  distribution,  even  in  the  same  field ,  and 
grows  very  unequally  in  different  seasons.  It  needs 
warmth  and  moisture  but  stands  drought  better  than 
red  clover. 

It  seeds  freely.  The  seed  may  remain  in  the  soil 
several  years.  The  seed  is  supposed  to  make  horses 
slobber  on  account  of  their  acid  nature,  a  character- 
istic common  to  all  clover  seeas.  There  are  about 
twice  as  many  seeds  in  a  pound  as  of  red  clover.  .  It 
roots  readily  from  its  creeping  stems.  It  is  perennial. 
It  is  frequently  called  Dutch  clover  because  it  was 
first  brought  into  cultivation  in  the  Netherlands. 

Alsike  or  Swedish  Clover  [TrifoUum  hybri- 
dum)  is  a  finer,  smaller  clover  than  medium  red  clo- 
ver, with  blossoms  of  small  reddish  white   heads.     In 


/ 


n^ 


222        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 


growth  it  is  about  half-way  between  medium  red  clo- 
ver and  white  clover.  It  does  not  produce  as  much 
hay  as  the  former,  and  is  not  as  suitable  for  pasture 
as  the  latter.  The  hay  is  of  excellent  quality.  It 
often  does  not  have  strong  enough  possession  of  the 
land  to  prevent  the  growth  of  weeds.  There  is  very 
little  aftermath.     It  is  more  sensitive  to  drought  than 

red  clover.  It  is 
better  adapted  to 
damp  soils  than 
the  latter. 

Where  it  is 
strictly  perennial 
it  would  be  de- 
sirable for  pastu- 
'rage,  but  it  is 
frequently  not  en- 
during. 

As  grown  in 
this  country  i  t 
matures  about  the 
time  of  red  clover. 
The  seed  is  only 
about  half  as 
large  as  red  clo- 
AiiSiKE  Clover— (After  Vasey.)  ver.     More  plants 

may  be  advantageously  grown  on  the  same  area. 

Although  it  has  no  such  wide  adaptation  as  red 
clover  there  are  probably  limited  areas  where  it  is 
worthy  of  cultivation.  ^^^^ 

Crimson  Clover  (Trifolium  incarnati&h)  is 
cultivated  in  France,  Germany  and  Belgium.  It  is 
a  native  of  Southern  Europe  and  hence  of  a  warm 


6Cy 


— ^ 


CLOVERS. 


223 


climate.  It  is  an  erect  annual  plant,  growing  about 
two  feet  high  and  has  large,  showy  heads  about  two 
inches  long.  The  flowers  vary  in  color  but  are  gen- 
erally a  bright  crimson. 

Crimson  clover  is  not  new  to  this  country,  but  it 
has  recently  been  brought  into  prominence  by  being 
recommended  as  a  soiling  crop.  For  this  purpose  it 
is  sown  alone  in  August  or  September  and  harvested 
in  the  following  May.  Vasey  says  it 
deserves  a  trial  in  the  dry  climates  of 
the  West.  , 

Alfalfa  or  lucerne  {Medhcago 
sativa)  has  probably  been  used  for 
hay  longer  than  any  other  cultivated 
plant.  The  ancient  Greeks  and 
Romans  used  it.  It  is  now  culti- 
vated in  Southern  Europe. 

It     was    introduced     into    North 

America    under    the    French   name 

» 

lucerne,    by  the    first  colonists.       It 

was  tried  over  and  over  again  in  the 

New    England    and   Atlantic   states 

during    the   150   years  that  elapsed 

prior  to    the    Revolution.       It   was      ^^fterVaf^f' 

finally  abandoned.     Darlington  wrote   in  1859  that 

alfalfa  could  not  be  profitably  grown  where  red  clover 

was  successful.     Later  experience  has  not  disproved 

this  assertion.     Each  has  its  place. 

It  was  introduced  into  South  America  under  the 
Spanish  name,  alfalfa,  where  it  now  grows  wild  ex- 
tensively. It  was  introduced  into  California  from 
Chili  and  has  become  the  principal  forage  crop  of  the 
Pacific  and  Rocky  Mountain  states.     Six  tons  of  hay 


224        TJIE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

per   acre   during   a   season   is   not   infrequently   re- 
ported. 

This  history  of  the  plant  is  a  fair  indication  of  its 
adaptability.  It  is  particularly  adapted  to  warm,  dry 
climates  and  dry  soils  with  deep,  porous  sub-soils.  The 
sub- soil  is  more  important  than  the  surface  soil. 

The  roots  grow  deep.  Sixteen  feet  deep  has  been 
reported  on  trustworthy  authority.  The  compact, 
yellow  clay  sub-soil  which  underlies  much  of.  the 
middle,  northern  and  Atlantic  states  is  fatal  to  the  suc- 
cessful growth  of  alfalfa.  It  is  only  "waging  a  fruit- 
less war  against  nature  to  attempt  to  grow  it." 

It  is  not  as  hardy  as  red  clover.  It  stands  drought 
excellently  and  is  adapted  to  irrigation.  Much  of  it 
in  the  West  is  grown  in  this  way. 

It  should  be  sown  in  the  spring  after  all  danger 
from  spring  frosts  are  past.  When  sown  broadcast 
the  best  results  are  obtained  by  sowing  on  well  pre- 
pared land  without  grain,  grass  or  other  forage  plants. 
Weeds  are  inclined  to  appear.  Planting  in  drills  12 
to  18  inches  apart  is,  therefore,  sometimes  recom- 
mended. 

Ten  to  twenty  pounds  of  seed  may  be  sown  per 
acre;  less  if  in  drills  than  if  broadcast;  less  if  for 
seed  than  for  hay.  The  seeds  are  rather  large. 
Twenty  pounds  per  acre  is  equivalent  to  about  100 
seeds  per  square  foot.  The  seed  does  not  grow  so 
uniformly  well  as  red  clover. 

Alfalfa  is  strictly  perennial  and  is,  therefore, 
adapted  to  both  permanent  meadows  and  pastures.  It 
does  not  stand  grazing  so  well  as  the  true  clovers  or 
the  grasses.  In  Oreat  Britain,  it  is  used  chiefly  for 
soiling.  In  moist  climates  it  is  difficult  to  cure,  and 
the  leaves  are  apt  to  be  lost  in  drying. 


CLOVEiiS. 


225 


Au  ALFA.— (After  Vasey.) 


226        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FAKM. 


Common  Yellow  Clover  or  Trefoil,  {Medi- 
cago  lupulina)  grows  about  12  inches  high  and  is  in 
bloom  in  May.  The  heads  are  a  small  cluster  of 
yellow  blossoms.  The  leaves  are  small  and  the  stalks 
small,  resembling  white  clover  in  its  manner  of 
growth. 

It  is  too  small  for  a  hay  crop.  In  Great  Britain  it 
is  considered  desirable  for  pasture.  It  is  bieDnial  but 
seeds  so  plentifully  as  to  make  it  prac- 
tically permanent.  Common  trefoil 
occupies  the  northern  part  of  Europe 
while  alfalfa  occupies  the  southern  part. 
It  grows  readily  in  this  country  and 
is  worthy  of  a  trial  for  early  pastu- 
rage. It  would  probably  not  produce 
much  summer  pasturage,  as  it  does  not 
stand  heat  and  drought  well. 

Bur  Clover  {Medicago  denticu- 
lata)  is  an  annual,  native  of  the  Medi- 
terranean region,  which  has  become 
widely  distributed  in  California  and 
somewhat  in  the  southern  states  and  is 
considered  of  great  value. 

It  only  grows  in  a  mild  climate.  It 
is  sown  in  the  fall,  growing  during  the 
winter  months  and  ripening  in  the  spring.  Another 
crop  may  be  grown  on  the  the  same  land  during  the 
summer,  and  the  seed  left  in  the  soil  will  produce 
a  crop  of  clover  during  the  succeeding  winter  months. 
The  seed  is  produced  in  pods  or  burs  which  cause 
trouble  by  getting  into  the  wool  of  sheep. 

Japan  Clover  (Lespedeza  striata)  is  an  annup,! 
which  was  introduced  into  the  south  Atlantic  states 


BUE  ClXJVEE. 
(After  Vasey.) 


CLOVERS.  227 

from  China  about  1850.  It  re-seeds  on  the  same 
ground  year  after  year,  and  has  not  been  sown  much 
artificially.  It  is  highly  prized  for  pasture  in  the 
South,  but  is  not  suited  to  northern  climate.  It  is 
somewhat  cut  for  hay  also  on  the  lowlands.  It  seems 
to  have  been  spread  by  the  war,  the  seed  having  been 
carried  from  place  to  place  in  the  hay  and  by  the 
horses.     It  was  not  much  known  before  that  time. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

SILAGE   AND   FORAGE    CROPS. 

Soiling,  or  the  system  of  feeding  farm  animals 
green  food  in  stables  or  yards  instead  of  allowing 
tiiem  to  go  to  pastures,  has  never  become  common  in 
the  United  States.  Farmers  have  generally  believed 
the  cost  of  the  additional  labor  made  necessary,  more 
than  equaled  the  gain  from  this  system.  Partial  soil- 
ing is  common,  and  there  is  an  increasingly  large 
acreage  devoted  annually  to  the  growth  of  crops  to 
be  used  in  the  early  spring,  during  summer  drouths, 
or  when  the  pastures  begin  to  fail  in  the  autumn. 
There  is  now  a  large  area  devoted  to  growing  crops 
to  be  stored  in  silos.  This  system  of  preserving  fod- 
ders is  extending  year  by  year,  more  especially  among 
dairy  farmers. 

Maize. — Indian  corn  is  easily  first  among  the 
crops  grown  for  ensilage  in  this  country,  and  is  very 
largely  grown  for  feeding  during  the  summer  and 
early  autumn.  No  crop  gives  a  larger  return  of  nu- 
tritious and  palatable  food.  It  is  easily  cultivated 
and  is  well  adapted  to  a  large  part  of  the  United 
States.  One  of  the  great  wastes  in  our  system  of 
farming  has  been  in  the  general  failure  to  at  all  fully 
utilize  the  stalks  and  leaves  of  the  corn  crop  when  it 
has  been  grown  for  the  grain.  The  proportion  of  the . 
crop  which  is  being  well  cared  for  in  this  respect  is 
steadily  increasing. 

What  has  been  said  about  soil,  climate  and  cultiva- 
tion in  the  chapters  given  to  corn  as  a  grain  crop,  ap- 

228 


SILAGE  AND  FOBAGE  CROPS.  229 

plies  almost  equally  well  to  it  as  a  silage  crop.  There 
is,  however,  much  difference  of  opinion  and  practice 
concerning  varieties,  thickness  of  planting  and  time  of 
harvesting,  when  the  crop  is  to  be  used  for  summer 
feeding  or  put  into  the  silo.  Formerly  broadcast 
sowing  of  the  crop  was  not  uncommon,  as  much  as 
three  or  four  bushels  of  seed  being  sometimes  used 
per  acre.  With  fertile  soil  a  large  yield  was  received 
in  this  way,  but  the  stalks  did  not  have  so  good  de- 
velopment as  when  planted  in  rows,  and  the  crop 
cultivated.  At  present  the  more  common  practice  is 
to  plant  in  rows  three  to  four  feet  apart,  and  at  the 
rate  of  one  kernel  every  four  or  even  six  inches  in  the 
row. 

The  kind  of  stock  to  which  the  crop  is  to  be  fed, 
and  the  time  at  which  it  is  to  be  used,  have  much  to 
do  with  determining  the  thickness  of  planting.  If 
to  be  fed  to  supplement  the  pasturage  in  the  sum- 
mer or  to  dairy  cattle  liberally  supplied  with  grains, 
comparatively  thick  planting  is  often  preferred.  If  to 
be  fed  in  the  autumn  to  hogs  or  to  fattening  cattle  or 
to  be  put  into  the  silo  for  feeding  to  beef  cattle,  thin- 
ner planting  is  advisa'ble.  It  is  believed  the  great- 
est food  value  is  received  if  the  crop  be  not  planted 
so  thick  as  to  prevent  the  formation  and  develop- 
ment of  small  ears. 

The  quantity  of  dry  matter  in  the  plant  and  its 
total  food  value  increases  until  it  has  nearly  reached 
maturity.  There  is  some  loss  in  palatability,  possibly 
some  in  digestibility  and  danger  of  considerable  loss 
from  the  falling  of  the  leaves,  if  the  crop  is  allowed 
to  mature  before  cutting.  If  the  fodder  is  to  be  kept 
in  shocks  or  stacks   it  is  better  to  leave  it  until  the 


280        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

kernels  have  become  fairly  hardened.  If  to  be  put 
into  the  silo  it  may  be  cut  at  a  somewhat  earlier 
stage.  Ensilage  is  best  preserved  if  the  crop  is  cut 
when  it  has  neither  a  great  nor  small  percentage  of 
water  in  it. 

The  young  and  rapidly  growing  corn-stalks  have 
very  little  dry  matter  in  them.  In  experiments  at 
the  Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  it  was 
found  that  when  the  stalks  of  a  medium  sized  dent 
variety  had  reached  half  the  total  height  they  had  but 
one- fourteenth  as  much  dry  matter  as  when  fully 
matured,  and  when  they  were  in  full  tassel  only 
about  one-third  as  much.  Early  cutting  involves  a 
considerable  loss  of  possible  feeding  value  of  the 
crop,  but  gives  a  very  palatable  food,  often  produced 
more  cheaply  than  any  other  crop  of  equal  value. 

The  larger  varieties  of  sweet  corn  are  sometimes 
grown  as  a  fodder  crop.  They  have  the  advantages 
of  early  maturity  and  of  greater  palatability  than 
the  ordinary  field  corn  varieties.  The  chief  objection 
is  that  the  yield  is  relatively  small.  They  may  be 
planted  more  thickly  in  the  rows  and  with  the  rows 
closer  together  than  when  larger  varieties  are  used. 
Many  growers  of  corn  for  ensilage  prefer  the  large, 
late  maturing  varieties  grown  as  field  corn  in  some 
of  the  Southern  states.  On  fertile  land  and  with  good 
culture  enormous  yields  are  secured.  The  stalks  are 
sweeter  than  those  of  the  medium  sized  dent  varieties. 
An  objection  is  that  a  longer  season  is  required  for 
maturing  and  there  is  danger  of  injury  from  frost 
in  Northern  states  if  the  crop  is  not  cut  until  the 
ears  have  somewhat  matured.  Many  farmers  prefer 
to  use  the  larger  varieties  of  field  corn   adapted  to 


SILAGE  AND  FORAGE  CROPS.  231 

their  region.  There  is  considerable  difference  in 
these  in  adaptation  to  use  as  fodder  crops.  Those 
with  the  largest  number  of  joints  and  greatest  per- 
centage of  leaves  should  be  selected. 

In  some  cases  a  crop  of  corn  may  be  grown  for 
cutting  green  or  for  ensilage,  on  ground  which  has 
produced  a  crop  of  wheat,  rye  or  barley.  If  there  is 
sufficient  moisture  in  the  soil  to  permit  germination 
and  fairly  vigorous  growth  of  the  young  plants  a  fair 
yield  may  be  secured,  but  there  is  not  often  sufficient 
time  to  allow  the  crop  to  mature. 

Large  as  is  the  yield  of  good  food  from  a  well 
managed  crop  of  corn  grown  for  soiling  or  ensilage, 
it  is  probably  generally  over-estimated.  Reports  of 
yields  of  20  or  25  tons  per  acre  are  commonly  made 
and  in  some  cases  are  correct.  But  these  are  much 
above  average  results,  even  under  favorable  con- 
ditions. For  the  country  at  large  15  tons  per  acre  is 
a  good  crop  in  fields  of  fair  extent. 

S^orghnm. — The  sweet  sorghum  has  been  highly 
recommended  as  a  crop  for  soiling  or  for  ensilage 
and  is  grown  to  some  extent  for  these  purposes.  Ex- 
cept in  regions  with  deficient  rain- fall  it  is  not  the 
equal  of  Indian  corn.  The  yield  is  not  greater,  and 
in  the  great  corn-growing  regions  the  culture  is  rather 
more  costly  because  of  the  slower  growth  of  the 
young  plants,  often  making  hand  hoeing  necessary  to 
free  the  hills  of  weeds.  The  crop  is  more  difficult 
to  cure  for  use  as  dry  fodder,  and  in  most  cases  the 
ensilage  made  from  it  has  not  been  so  satisfactory 
as  that  from  corn. 

Good  results  have  been  had  when  sorghum  has 
been  grown  in  Western  Kansas,  Nebraska   and  other 


232        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

regions  with  fertile  soil  but  not  abundant  rain-fall. 
It  is  there  sometimes  grown  as  a  cultivated  crop, 
and  sometimes  sown  broadcast,  harvested  with  a 
mowing  machine  and  treated  as  a  coarse  hay  crop, 
often  being  left  in  the  fields  in  large  shocks  until 
needed  for  use. 

In  parts  of  the  country  where  the  winters  are  mild 
and  growth  commences  early  in  spring,  the  practice 
of  sowing  the  seed  in  the  autumn  has  been  recom- 
mended, thus  securing  an  earlier  growth. 

Several  varieties  of  the  non- saccharine  sorghums 
have  been  grown,  to  some  extent,  as  fodder  crops  in 
different  parts  of  the  United  States  for  years.  They 
are  known  by  many  names.  There  are  several  varie- 
ties of  Durra,  spelled  also  in  three  or  four  other  ways. 
Some  of  these  are  grown  in  enormous  quantities  in 
Africa,  India  and  China,  where  the  seeds  are  a  staple 
food  of  multitudes  of  men. 

Under  such  names  as  Millo  maize,  Guinea  corn, 
Egyptian  corn,  Jerusalem  corn,  different  varieties  of 
these  non- saccharine  sorghums  have  been  introduced, 
and  extravagantly  praised,  both  as  seed  and  fodder- 
producing  plants.  No  one  of  them  has  come  into 
common  or  continued  use  in  this  country,  except  in 
some  of  the  Western  States,  in  parts  where  the  rain- 
fall is  not  always  sufficient  for  the  safe  culture  of 
corn.  For  such  regions  they  promise  to  be  very  val- 
uable. The  yield  of  the  seed,  which  is  a  valuable 
food  for  any  class  of  stock,  is  often  equal  to  that  of 
corn  in  the  same  region,  and  the  fodder  is  valua- 
ble. They  are  sometimes  sown  broadcast,  and  treated 
fiB  a  hay  crop,    or  may  be  planted  in  drills  and  cul- 


SILAGE  AND  FORAGE  CROPS.  233 

tivated.     When  cat  early  for  summer  feeding,   some 
varieties  will  give  a  second  crop. 

Millet. — Several  varieties  of  millet  are  grown  to 
a  limited  extent  as  hay  crops  or  for  a  soiling  crop. 
There  is  much  confusion  as  to  the  common  names. 
Hungarian  grass  (Setaria  Ifalica)  is  probably  the 
most  generally  known.  The  (rerman  millet  is  larger 
and  coarser  in  stalk  and  leaf,  and  requires  a  longer 
time  to  come  to  maturity,  but  yields  more  abun- 
dantly. Some  varieties  have  been  cultivated  for  cen- 
turies in  Europe  and  in  parts  of  Asia.  They  were 
brought  to  this  country  at  a  comparatively  early 
period  and  have  been  generally  tried.  In  no  part  of 
the  older  settled  portions  of  the  country  are  they 
largely  grown  and  it  is  not  probable  they  will  ever  in- 
crease much  in  popularity  for  these  regions. 

The  crop  is  so  well  adapted  to  hot  climates  and 
withstands  drought  so  well  that  it  is  probable  the 
larger  varieties  will  be  somewhat  largely  grown  on  the 
western  plains,  where  they  are  now  cultivated  to  a  fair 
extent.  They  are  worthy  of  attention  as  minor  crops 
in  the  great  grain- growing  regions,  especially  where 
the  soil  is  light  and  well  drained.  The  crop  is  not 
well  adapted  to  heavy  clay  or  wet  soils,  nor  to  a  cold 
climate.  It  should  not  be  sown  until  the  soil  has 
become  warm.  With  a  very  moderate  supply  of 
moisture  it  grows  rapidly.  In  from  six  to  ten  weeks 
after  sowing  the  crop  may  be  harvested.  On  good 
soil  from  three  to  five  tons  per  acre  may  be  cut. 

The  seeds  are  nutritious,  but  sometimes  not  well 
digested  when  fed  to  cattle  or  horses.  There  is 
a  largely  unfounded  prejudice  against  feeding  the 
crop.  •  Sometimes  excessive  feeding  has  produced  bad 


234        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

results  and  probably  the  short,  stiff  hairs  or  bristles 
so  abundant  about  the  heads  may  cause  injury  in 
some  cases.  If  cut  before  the  seeds  have  ripened 
hay  of  good  quality  is  secured. 

A  recommendation  of  millet  is  that  it  may  often 
be  grown  as  a  "catch  crop,"  following  a  crop  of 
wheat  or  one  of  rye  which  has  been  grown  for  pas- 
turage or  soiling.  The  millet  may  be  removed  in 
time  for  a  fall  sown  crop  of  grain.  Millet  also  does 
well  sown  on  prairie  sod  when  first  broken. 

If  sown  for  hay  from  half  a  bushel  to  one  bushel 
per  acre  may  be  sown.  If  the  grain  is  the  chief  con- 
sideration from  one  to  two  pecks  per  acre  will  give 
better  results  than  thicker  seeding. 

Rye. — Rye,  which  has  been  treated  of  as  a  grain 
crop,  is  a  favorite  crop  in  some  regions  for  soiling  and 
also  to  be  used  for  fall,  autumn  and  early  spring  pas- 
turage. It  does  well  on  almost  any  soil,  is  little  liable 
to  injury  by  freezing  and  thawing  in  winter,  often 
makes  a  good  growth  in  the  fall,  giving  good  pastur- 
age for  four  or  six  weeks,  and  is  among  the  very  first 
of  soiling  crops  to  be  ready  for  cutting  in  the  spring, 
or  it  may  be  pastured  for  a  time  in  the  spring  and 
give  a  fair  yield  of  grain. 

Comfrey. — The  prickley  comfrey  {Symphytum 
asperrimum)  has  been  brought  to  this  country  from 
Europe  more  than  once,  and  introduced  with  ex- 
travagant praise.  It  has  not  come  into  more  than  the 
rarest  use  and  it  is  not  probable  it  will  become  gen- 
erally popular.  It  is  a  coarse  growing,  fleshy  stalked, 
broad,  coarse  leaved  plant,  producing  large  crops.  It 
is  very  hardy,  of  easy  cultivation  and  perennial.  On 
the  grounds  of  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station  neg- 


^i^  cL...<jtZ^^  ^  (i^  4u^  ,  iCyU.  (^^c&^-^   a^  ,^^ 


SILAGE  AND  FOEAGE  CROPS.  235 

lected  plants  make  a  vigorous  growth  annually  al- 
though growing  ia  a  thick  blue  grass  sod. 

Farm  animals  usually  do  not  like  the  plant,  rarely 
eating  it  voluntarily  until  accustomed  to  its  use  by  hav- 
ing it  mixed  with  other  food.  It  is  believed  there 
are  more  valuable  plants  for  cultivation  by  farmers  in 
this  country.  It  is  not  suited  for  pasturage  and  not 
especially  for  ensilage. 

It  is  readily  grown  from  small  slips  from  the 
roots.  These  may  be  planted  in  rows  far  enough 
apart  to  permit  cultivation,  for  the  first  year,  at  least. 

Rape. — Rape  {Brasslca  napus)  is  a  plant  of  the 
turnip  kind,  but  has  not  the  enlarged  root  of  the 
edible  turnips,  and  is  grown  for  its  seeds  and  stalk 
and  leaves.  It  is  prized  in  parts  of  Great  Britain 
and  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  is  well  spoken  of 
in  reports  from  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College.  It 
has  been  tried  to  a  limited  extent  in  the  United 
States  but  has  not  come  into  practical  culture.  It 
is,  probably,  much  better  adapted  to  a  cool  and  moist 
climate  than  to  one  with  hot  and  dry  summers.  It 
grows  rapidly,  can  be  sown  in  the  very  late  spring 
or  early  summer,  either  broadcast  or,  better,  in  drill 
rows  and  cultivated.  The  crop  can  be  cut  and  fed  at 
the  stables  or  used  for  the  pasturage  of  sheep  or 
calves.  Cattle  like  it  well  but  injure  the  crop  by 
trampling  it.  The  crop  is  not  injured  by  moderate 
frosts.  It  seems  worthy  of  further  trial,  especially 
iu  the  more  northern  states. 


CHAPTER   XXI. 

THE  POTATO. 

History. — The  potato  (Solanum  tuberosum)  is  one 
of  the  few  food  plants  of  great  value  to  the  world 
which  was  native  to  America.  It  has  been  found 
growing  wild  both  in  South  and  North  America,  from 
Chile  to  New  Mexico.  It  had  been  cultivated  in  a 
rude  way  by  the  natives  of  parts  of  South  America 
before  the  discovery  of  the  continent  by  the  Spaniards, 
It  is  not  certainly  known  that  it  had  been  so  cultivated 
in  what  is  now  the  United  States.  It  is  thought  it  was 
introduced  into  some  of  the  early  settlements  by  the 
Spaniards,  who  also  took  it  to  Europe,  probably  about 
1550.  It  was  grown  in  a  very  small  way  in  several 
countries  in  the  west  of  Europe,  but  attracted  little 
attention  until  near  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh  took  some  of  the  tubers  to  Eng- 
land in  1586  and  brought  them  to  the  attention  of 
Queen  Elizabeth. 

The  culture  of  the  crop  was  a  long  time  in  becom- 
ing general.  It  was  first  grown  largely  in  Ireland. 
It  is  scarcely  more  than  one  hundred  years  since  its 
culture  became  general  in  the  west  of  Europe.  Even 
in  America  it  was  long  in  attracting  the  attention  it 
deserved.  It  is  now  largely  grown  in  many  parts  of 
the  civilized  world.  Although  best  adapted  to  a  tem- 
perate climate,  it  is  grown  in  tropical  regions  and  also 
very  far  north.  Next  to  the  cereals  it  is  the  most  im- 
portant food  plant  for  man. 

While  there  are  many  varieties  and  great  differences 

S36 


THE  POTATO.  237 

between  them,  it  is  not  believed  there  have  been  any 
radical  changes  in  the  potato  since  its  cultivation  be- 
came common. 

The  name  potato  is  probably  derived  from  batata, 
the  name  by  which  the  sweet  potato  was  formerly 
known.  It  is  often  called  "Irish  potato,"  probably 
because  of  its  general  cultivation  by  the  Irish  people. 

Prodnction.— The  average  acreage  on  which  po- 
tatoes are  grown  in  the  United  States  is  not  far  from 
2,250,000.  In  some  years  it  has  exceeded  2,500,000. 
The  crop  has  not  reached  200  million  bushels  more 
than  two  or  three  times.  The  crop  of  1891  is  the 
largest  ever  grown,  the  best  estimates  placing  it  at 
about  225  million  bushels.  The  average  yield  per 
acre,  for  1891,  is  placed  at  ninety-four  bushels.  The 
average  for  a  series  of  ten  years  was  only  seventy-six 
bushels.  It  has  never  reached  100  bushels  for  the 
whole  country,  although  the  average  in  some  states 
has  frequently  been  above  this  figure.  Yields  at  the 
rate  of  1,000  bushels  per  acre  have  been  recorded,  and 
reports  of  crops  of  from  400  to  600  bushels  per  acre 
are  not  infrequent.  A  yield  of  150  to  200  bushels  per 
acre  is  to  be  considered  good.  New  York,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Ohio,  Illinois,  Iowa  and  Kansas  are  the  chief 
potato  states,  but  not  always  in  the  order  given.  In 
1888  these  states  produced  a  little  more  than  half  the 
crop  of  the  whole  country.  New  York  is  easily  first 
in  acreage  and  yield.  In  1888  it  produced  more  than 
one- seventh  of  the  total  crop. 

While  the  average  price  per  bushel  for  a  series  of 
years  has  been  only  fifty  cents,  the  value  per  acre  of 
the  potato  crop  is  greater  by  far  than  that  of  any  of 
the  cereals,   and  is  only  exceeded,  among  the  chief 


m        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  TitE  FAtlM. 

crops  of  the  country,  by  tobacco.  The  cultivation  of 
potatoes  does  not  increase  so  rapidly  in  the  United 
States  as  does  that  of  other  leading  crops.  In  ten 
recent  years  the  increase  of  acreage  was  about  25  per 
cent. 

Germany  is  the  greatest  potato -growing  nation  of 
the  world.  Russia,  France  and  Austria  each  produce 
much  larger  crops  than  do  the  United  States.  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  with  a  less  acreage,  also  have  a 
larger  annual  product  than  does  this  country.  The 
crop  of  1891  is  believed  to  have  been  larger  in  Europe 
and  America  than  that  of  any  former  year. 

Uses. —  The  potato  is  chiefly  used  for  human  food, 
but  a  large  part  of  the  crop  is  also  used  as  food  for 
cattle  and  hogs.  The  refuse  potatoes  in  many  coun- 
tries are  fed  to  farm  animals  either  cooked  or  uncooked, 
and  sometimes  the  whole  crop  is  so  used  if  the  price 
is  especially  low. 

Great  quantities  of  starch  are  made  from  potatoes 
in  this  and  other  countries.  Sometimes  sugar  or  syrup 
is  made  from  the  starch.  Considerable  quantities  of 
intoxicating  liquor  are  distilled  from  potatoes  in  some 
countries. 

Potatoes  are  healthful,  palatable  and  fairly  nutri- 
tious as  food  for  man.  They  have  a  large  percentage 
of  water.  The  chief  defect  for  food  is  in  the  small 
percentage  of  albuminoids.  The  potato  is  not  well 
adapted  to  be  the  exclusive  diet  of  man.  In  parts  of 
Ireland  it  has  been  so  used  at  times.   . 

Varieties. — The  number  of  varieties  of  the  potato 
is  very  great  and  is  rapidly  increasing.  As  in  other 
somewhat  similar  cases  there  is  confusion  in  regard  to 
names.      Varieties,  which  are  much  alil^e,  are  some- 


THE  POTATO.  239 

times  called  by  the  same  name,  while  one  variety,  or 
potatoes  practically  alike,  may  be  known  by  several 
names.  The  difference  between  varieties  is  often 
marked.  The  habit  of  growth  of  the  plant;  the  size, 
shape,  color,  flavor  and  texture  of  the  potatoes;  the 
number  produced,  and  the  time  of  maturing,  all  differ. 

New  varieties  are  obtained  by  planting  the  seed 
produced  abundantly  by  some  varieties  and  sparingly, 
or  not  at  all,  by  others.  Seed  fi'om  the  same  ball  may 
produce  varieties  much. unlike,  or  they  may  consider- 
ably resemble  the  parent  variety.  For  the  last  quar- 
ter or  third  of  a  century  much  attention  has  been  paid 
to  the  production  of  new  varieties  by  cross-fertilization 
of  the  flowers.  In  this  way  desirable  qualities  of  two 
varieties  are  frequently  combined.  Many  thousands 
of  varieties  have  thus  been  produced  by  single  ex- 
periments. 

One  of  the  first  to  give  especial  attention  to  the  pro- 
duction of  new  varieties  in  the  United  States  was  Kev. 
C.  E.  Goodrich,  of  Utica,  N.  Y.,  who  began  the  work 
nearly  fifty  years  ago,  and  produced  and  tested 
nearly  15,000  seedlings.  He  obtained  several  varieties 
of  potatoes  from  Chile  and  other  South  American 
countries.  Few  of  the  varieties  produced  by  him  were 
especially  valuable,  but  from  some  of  them,  seedlings 
were  produced  which  became  very  popular.  In  later 
years  large  sums  of  money  have  been  paid  for  new 
varieties. 

It  is  noticeable  that  no  variety  of  the  potato  has 
long  retained  popularity  in  this  country.  Probably 
no  variety  grown  fifty  years  ago  is  now  cultivated. 
The  Early  Rose  retained  wide  popularity  for  about 
twenty-five  years,  and  is  still  largely  grown.      The 


240         THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

Beauty  of  Hebron  and  Early  Ohio  are  other  examples 
of  varieties  which  have  been  popular  favorites  over 
much  of  the  country  for  a  considerable  number  of 
years.  In  many  cases  varieties  have  been  introduced, 
highly  praised,  widely  disseminated,  largely  grown, 
and  then  dropped  out  of  favor  within  a  half-dozen 
years.  Few  varieties  brought  from  Europe  have  done 
well  in  this  country.  Some  American  varieties  have 
become  popular  in  Great  Britain. 

In  the  opinion  of  many  it  is  impossible  to  long  cul- 
tivate any  variety  without  some  deterioration  in  qua- 
lity, hardiness  or  productiveness.  Other  successful 
growers  believe  that  the  general  deterioration  is  the 
result  of  lack  of  care  in  selection  or  poor  cultivation. 

Among  the  qualities  desired  in  a  variety  are,  vigor 
of  growth  and  abundant  leaf  surface  of  the  plant;  the 
production  of  tubers  of  uniform  size  and  shape,  either 
round  or  oval,  and  free  from  protuberances,  with  com- 
paratively few  "eyes,"  and  these  shallow.  Potatoes 
with  a  bright,  light  color  are  most  attractive,  but  some 
of  the  best  varieties  have  a  dark  and  unattractive  skin. 
In  quality  dryness  and  mealiness,  when  cooked,  are 
important  points.  Some  of  the  most  popular  varieties 
have  no  decided  flavor.  Early  maturity  and  produc- 
tiveness are  most  desirable  qualities,  rarely  united  in 
any  remarkable  degree  in  one  variety.  Generally 
varieties  producing  tubers  of  very  great  size  are  not 
of  first-class  quality.  Single  tubers,  weighing  two  or 
three  pounds  each,  have  been  produced,  but  those 
weighing  not  more  than  one-half  pound  each  are  usu- 
ally preferred. 

Culture. — The  potato  does  best  in  a  cool  and 
moist  climate.      The  average  yield  per  acre  is  greater 


THE  POTATO.  2'ii 

in  the  northern  than  in  the  southern  states;  and  greater 
in  Canada  or  Great  Britain  than  in  the  United  States. 
It  can  be  grown  in  the  far  north,  but  the  yield  is 
small  and  the  quality  poor. 

The  crop  will  do  fairly  well  on  a  large  variety  of 
soils,  but  best  on  the  light,  wami  and  well  drained, 
naturally  fertile  or  well  manured.  Large  crops  of  po- 
tatoes of  excellent  quality  are  grown  on  some  sandy 
soils  with  little  natural  fertility,  by  the  liberal  use  of 
manure.  The  dark  colored  prairie  soils,  so  well  adapted 
to  the  production  of  corn,  is  not  the  best  for  potatoes. 
Planting  on  land  which  has  been  in  grass  or  clover  is 
a  favorite  practice  with  many  farmers.  Well  rotted 
stable  manure  is  the  cheapest  fertilizer  in  many  parts 
of  the  country.  The  so-called  complete  artificial 
manures  are  largely  used  in  the  older  potato-growing 
regions.  While  a  potato  crop  requires  much  potash, 
the  application  of  manures  containing  much  potash 
often  gives  less  satisfactory  results  than  when  super- 
phosphates are  used. 

Securing  a  good  condition  of  the  soil  is  as  import- 
ant as  for  almost  any  other  crop.  Fall  plowing  is 
preferred  by  many.  Disk  harrowing  and  the  use  of 
the  roller,  or  some  other  clod-crushing  implement,  is 
advisable. 

Early  planting  generally  gives  the  best  results. 
The  date  will  vary  with  the  region  of  country,  but 
they  may  safely  be  planted  as  soon  as  the  soil  can  be 
put  in  good  condition  and  danger  of  severe  freezing 
is  past.  The  crop  is  best  adapted  to  a  moist,  cool 
climate;  drouth  injures  it  much,  especially  while  the 
plants  are  young. 

With  few  farm  crops  are  there  greater  differences 


24^        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FAEM. 

in  practice,  so  far  as  thickness  of  planting  and  quan- 
tity of  seed  is  concerned.  The  habit  of  growth  of 
different  varieties  is  to  be  considered.  Usually  the 
largest  yields  are  secured  from  rather  thick  planting. 
In  field  culture  the  rows  may  be  from  two  and  one-half 
to  three  feet  apart,  with  the  -pototoes  dropped  from 
one  foot  to  eighteen  inches  apart  in  the  row.  Some- 
times they  are  planted  in  hills  so  as  to  permit  cultiva- 
tion each  way. 

The  weight  of  evidence  from  a  very  large  number 
of  experiments  is  in  favor  of  the  use  of  medium  sized 
tubers,  cut  into  pieces  with  two  or  three  eyes  each, 
leaving  as  much  as  possible  of  the  potato  on  each  piece. 
Large  yields  of  excellent  potatoes  have  been  secured 
by  planting  small  pieces  with  single  eyes,  or  from 
planting  very  small  potatoes.  Planting  large  potatoes 
uncut  frequently  secures  a  large  yield,  but  often  the 
average  size  of  the  potatoes  is  reduced.  The  large 
quantity  of  seed  required  is  a  sufficient  objection  to 
this  practice.  Many  successful  potato  growers  use 
small  potatoes  and  claim  that  no  loss  is  sustained  in 
.either  quantity  or  quality  of  the  produce,  even  if  the 
practice  is  continued  for  years. 

Hand  dropping  is  the  most  common  practice,  al- 
though there  are  machines  which  do  the  work  well  if 
the  potatoes  or  pieces  used  are  of  fairly  uniform  size. 
Moderately  deep  planting  is  recommended,  especially 
on  dry,  sandy  soils.  Planting  in  trenches  in  which 
manures  are  spread,  and  only  partially  filling  the 
trench  at  first,  has  given  good  results  in  many  cases. 
Level  culture  is  better  than  "hilling  up"  for  most  soils. 
Hand  hoeing  may  be  made  very  effective  but  is  costly. 
In  good  soils  there  is  little  need  of  deep  cultivation; 


I 


The  potato.  245 

deep  and  close  cultivation  after  the  tubers  have  begun 
to  grow  often  does  harm.  Keeping  the  soil  free  from 
weeds  and  the  surface  loose  are  the  points  desired. 
The  implements  used  and  the  frequency  of  cultivation 
differ  greatly  in  different  regions. 

Harvesting. — Potatoes  may  often  be  left  in  the 
ground  until  there  is  danger  of  frost,  but  it  is  safer  to 
harvest  them  as  soon  as  they  have  thoroughly  ripened. 
There  are  several  machines  for  harvesting  the  crop, 
which  answer  the  purpose  fairly  well.  Some  simple 
and  low-priced  ones  are  somewhat  like  a  sub-soil  plow, 
with  rods  running  back  from  the  shovel,  between 
which  the  earth  passes  while  the  potatoes  are  carried 
to  the  surface.  Other  machines  are  larger  and  more 
complicated. 

In  all  cases  the  potatoes  must  be  picked  from  the 
ground  and  sorted  by  hand  labor.  The  sorting  is  best 
done  in  the  field.  The  potatoes  may  at  once  be  placed 
in  ]3arrels  or  boxes,  in  which  .they  are  kept  until  sold,  or 
they  may  be  stored  in  bins  or  pits  in  the  ground.  A 
dry,  cool  place,  with  as  little  change  of  temperature 
as  may  be,  is  essential  to  their  best  preservation, 

SWEET    POTATOES. 

The  sweet  potato  (Convolvulus  batatas)  L.,  is  of  un- 
certain origin.  Dr.  Candolle  gives  the  preference  to 
America,  but  admits  the  strength  of  the  arguments  in 
favor  of  an  Asiatic  origin.  It  was  taken  from  America 
to  the  south  of  Europe  by  the  Portuguese  or  Spaniards. 
It  is  now  largely  grown  in  the  warm  climate  regions 
both  in  the  new  and  old  world.  In  parts  of  the 
southern  states  it  is  more  common  than  the  white  po- 
tato.     It   can   be   successfully   grown   in   the  more 


^44        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

northern  states,  but  is  not  an  important  crop  north  of 
the  fortieth  parallel. 

It  does  best  in  sandy  or  loam  soil,  but  good  crops 
may  be  grown  on  well  drained  clay  soil.  When  the 
soil  is  quite  loose  there  is  a  probability  that  the  roots 
will  grow  long  and  slender.  To  check  this,  shallow 
plowing,  leaving  a  compact  sub-soil,  is  often  advised. 

The  crop  is  grown  from  sprouts  or  sets,  produced 
abundantly  by  the  roots  when  they  are  placed  in  hot- 
beds. These  are  set  in  ridges  or  hills;  when  grown  as 
a  field  crop  in  the  central  states  the  ridges  are  pre- 
ferred. These  may  be  made  by  throwing  two  furrows 
together  with  a  common  plow,  after  the  soil  has  been 
put  in  good  condition.  It  is  helpful,  but  not  essen- 
tial, to  finish  the  ridge-making  with  the  hoe.  Narrow, 
sharp-topped  ridges  are  preferred.  They  may  be 
three  to  four  feet  apart.  The  plants  are  put  twelve 
to  eighteen  inches  apart  in  the  ridges.  In  dry  weather 
it  is  helpful  to  "  puddle "  the  roots  before  planting, 
but  this  is  not  essential  if  the  ground  is  fairly  moist. 
A  mason's  trowel  is  an  excellent  tool  for  use  in  mak- 
ing  the  holes  for  the  plants,  which  are  put  in  before 
the  trowel  is  withdrawn.  The  soil  should  be  well 
firmed  about  the  plants. 

Often  little  cultivation  is  needed.  A  large,  single- 
shoveled  plow  may  be  run  between  the  ridges  or  hills; 
the  weeds  being  removed  from  between  the  plants 
with  the  hand  hoe. 

If  the  plants  show  much  tendency  to  send  out  roots 
at  different  places  they  should  be  lifted  or  moved 
occasionally.  Often  the  surface  is  completely  covered 
by  the  vines  and  leaves.      On  the  other  hand,  a  fair 


THE  POTATO.  245 

crop  of  the  potatoes  is  sometimes  produced  when  the 
tops  have  made  but  small  gi'owth. 

The  crop  should  be  harvested  before  frost.  If  frost 
unexpectedly  comes  the  vines  should  at  once  be  cut 
close  to  the  ground. 

The  sweet  potato  requires  more  careful  handling 
than  the  common  potato.  It  should  be  well  dried  be- 
fore being  stored,  and  must  be  kept  warmer  than  is 
desirable  for  the  common  potato. 

Under  favorable  conditions  the  yield  is  enormously 
large;  the  average  vield  is  greater  than  that  of  the 
common  potato. 


I 


CHAPTER   XXII. 

ROOT  CROPS. 

The  cultivation  of  root  crops  for  use  in  feeding  farm 
animals  has  long  been  advocated  by  intelligent  farmers, 
practiced  by  a  considerable  number  with  satisfactory 
results,  but  has  never  become  common  over  any  con- 
siderable area  in  the  United  States.  In  Great  Britain 
and  in  parts  of  the  European  continent  root  crops  are 
very  largely  grown;  often  one- fourth  or  more  of  the 
cultivated  area  of  farms  of  large  size  will  be  in  roots. 
In  parts  of  Canada  their  cultivation  is  more  common 
than  in  the  United  States. 

Large  crops  of  either  of  several  kinds  of  roots  can 
be  grown;  they  are  palatable  and  healthful  food  for 
all  classes  of  farm  animals.  While  all  are  watery  the 
total  yield  of  dry  matter  is  large.  The  long  winter 
feeding  season  over  much  of  the  country  makes  some 
succulent  food  very  desirable.  These  and  other  points 
in  favor  of  extensive  field  culture  of  roots  have  been 
urged  for  many  years,  but  without  effecting  general 
practice. 

The  climate  of  the  United  States  is  not  the  best  for 
root  crops  of  any  kind.  They  do  best  in  cool  and 
moist  climates.  Their  most  successful  culture  requires 
a  good  deal  of  hand  labor,  which  is  relatively  high- 
priced  in  this  country.  The  ease,  certainty  and  cheap- 
ness with  which  food  for  live  stock  can  be  secured  by 
the  growth  of  Indian  corn  is  a  chief  reason  for  the 
lack  of  popularity  of  root  crops  for  stock  feeding. 
The  growth  of  the  practice  of  preserving  corn  in  silos, 

?4C 


CLU-iGl^  ^i-4^-  2l4.^.ljotU.?Li.  "^./^^ 


ROOT  CROPS.  247 

tlias  SGCtiring  it  in  a  succulent  state  for  winter  use, 
removes  a  chief  objection  to  it  and  makes  it  more 
nearly  supply  the  place  of  roots.  On  many  American 
farms  corn  takes  the  place  iu  the  rotation  of  crops 
occupied  by  roots  in  Great  Britain. 

The  severity  of  American  winters  in  the  Northern 
States  prevents  the  practice  of  out-door  feeding  roots 
and  makes  their  preservation  more  difficult.  The  large 
percentage  of  water  in  the  roots  almost  makes  them 
less  desirable  as  food  iu  very  cold  weather.  More 
than  100  pounds  of  turnips  are  sometimes  given 
daily  to  a  fatting  ox  in  Great  Britain. 

BEETS. 

The  beet  {Beta  vulgaris,  In.)  has  long  been  grown 
for  human  food.  For  more  than  two  hundred  years 
it  has  been  grown  in  England  as  food  for  farm  ani- 
mals. There  are  very  many  varieties,  differing  much 
in  form,  size  and  percentage  of  sugar  contained  in  the 
juice.  In  general  the  larger  growing  varieties  are 
coarser  textured,  have  a  larger  percentage  of  water, 
and  much  less  sugar  than  the  small  varieties  grown 
for  human  food  or  the  manufacture  of  sugar. 

Some  of  the  larger  varieties  of  what  are  called  sugar 
beets  are  extensively  grown  for  stock  feeding  and 
sometimes  reach  a  great  size,  but  the  mangel-wurzel, 
sometimes  written  mangold- wurzel,  is  more  commonly 
preferred.  This  is  believed  \)y  many  to  be  simply  a 
modification  by  culture  of  the  common  beet. 

There  are  a  number  of  varieties  of  the  sugar  beet 
for  stock  and  very  man^;  of  the  mangel-wurzel.  The 
most  striking  difference,  aside  from  color,  is  in  shape. 
Some  are  long,  others  oval.  Those  of  the  latter  shape 
are  generally  of  better  (quality,  but  the  long  varieties 


248         THE  SOILS  AND  CKOPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

frequently  give  the  larger  crops.  Single  roots  weigh- 
ing sixty  pounds  and  crops  of  nearly  one  hundred  tons 
to  the  acre  have  been  produced  under  favorable  cir- 
cumstances. In  this  country  crops  of  twenty-live  to 
thirty  tons  per  acre  are  not  uncommon,  without  espe- 
cially favorable  circumstances. 

Culture. — All  varieties  of  beets  do  •  best  in  rich, 
loamy  or  sandy  soils.  They  do  not  thrive  on  wet  or 
very  compact  soils.  Liberal  manuring  with  well  rotted 
stable  manure  is  a  safe  practice  unless  on  very  fertile 
soils.  Fairly  deep  plowing  is  desirable,  except  on 
naturally  loose  soils.  Getting  the  surface  finely 
divided  and  moderately  compact  is  desirable. 

Planting  should  be  done  fairly  early,  before  rather 
than  after  corn  planting.  A  fair  degree  of  moisture 
is  needed  to  insure  germination.  Dry  weather  while 
the  plants  are  young  greatly  retards  growth. 

The  seeds  may  be  put  in  rows  from  fifteen  to  thirty 
inches  apart.  When  the  ease  of  cultivation  is  of  more 
consequence  than  the  area  of  land  used,  the  wider 
planting  is  advisable.  Five  or  six  pounds  of  seed  per 
acre  are  required.  They  may  be  sown  with  a  seed- 
drill  or  dropped  by  hand — a  slow  and  tiresome  pro- 
cess. They  should  be  covered  from  one  to  two  inches 
deep,  unless  the  soil  is  quite  moist.  If  the  soil  is  dry, 
compacting  I  the  soil  about  the  seed  by  the  use  of  a 
roller  is  desirable.  In  some  cases  the  seed  is  soaked 
in  water  for  twelve  to  twenty- four  hours  before  plant- 

Hand  hoeing  is  often  necessary  while  the  plants 
are  small;  afterward  the  culture  may  be  chiefly  by 
horse  cultivators.  The  plants  should  be  thinned  to 
single  plants  from  eight  to  twelve  or  more  inches 


j 


BOOT  CROPS.  249 

apart,  according  to  the  size  of  the  variety  grown.  This 
thinning  may  be  done  iu  part  with  a  hoe,  bat  hand 
picking  is  necessary  to  some  extent.  Sometimes  thin- 
ning is  delayed  until  the  roots  have  grown  to  a  dia- 
meter of  a  half- inch  or  more,  when  they  can  be  pulled 
and  fed  to  cattle  or  pigs. 

Harvesting. — Beets  may  be  left  in  the  ground 
until  there  is  reason  to  expect  the  approach  of  frost. 
The  tops  may  be  cut  with  a  hoe,  but  it  is  safer  to  have 
them  twisted  off  by  hand,  as  cutting  the  top  of  the 
beet  increases  the  probability  of  its  rotting.  Some  va- 
rieties grow  with  a  large  part  of  the  root  above  the  sur- 
face and  can  easily  be  pulled.  With  others  it  is  better 
to  loosen  the  roots  by  plowing  a  furrow  close  to  them, 
throwing  the  earth  from  the  row.  The  roots  may  be 
laid  on  the  ground  or  at  once  carried  to  the  place  in 
which  they  are  to  be  stored.  The  leaves  have  some 
value  as  food  for  stock.  They  may  be  fed  green  or 
preserved  in  silos. 

Beets  are  easily  injured  by  frost.  They  may  be 
stored  in  cellars  or  in  out-door  pits.  Except  for  re- 
gions in  which  the  weather  is  very  cold  in  winter,  pits 
are  prefen'ed  to  cellars  by  many.  They  are  best  made 
long  and  narrow,  with  divisions  of  earth  at  frequent 
intervals,  so  comparatively  small  quantities  only  are 
exposed  to  the  air  at  any  one  time.  When  extreme 
cold  weather  is  to  be  expected,  cellars  or  houses  espe- 
cially constructed  for  the  purpose  are  essential.  The 
roots  should  be  dry  when  stored  and  it  is  well  to  have 
ventilation  for  the  cellar,  except  in  extremely  cold 
weathel-. 

TURNIPS. 

Turnips  (Brassica),  one  of  many  varieties  and  sev- 


250        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

eral  species.  Those  most  commonly  grown  as  food  for 
stock  are  some  of  the  many  varieties  of  the  common 
turnip,  Brassica  rapa,  L.,  and  the  larger,  coarser 
ruta-bagas  or  Swedish  turnips,  Brassica  Campestris, 
L.  The  turnip  is  of  European  origin.  Some  species 
have  long  been  cultivated  in  Europe  and  parts  of 
Asia.  The  field  cultivation  of  turnips  as  food  for 
stock  was  introduced  into  England  from  the  conti- 
nent about  1650,  and  made  great  changes  and  im- 
provements in  British  agriculture. 

A  moist,  cool  climate  is  best  for  turnips  and  the 
crop  is  especially  subject  to  attack  by  insects.  The 
uncertainty  of  securing  a  good  stand  of  the  plants; 
the  small  percentage  of  solid  matter  and  consequent 
low  feeding  value,  compared  with  bulk  and  weight, 
and  the  impracticability,  in  most  parts  of  the  United 
States  in  which  the  summer  climate  is  suitable,  of 
having  the  crop  eaten,  where  it  grows,  by  sheep,  a  com- 
mon practice  in  England,  have  all  tended  to  prevent 
popularity  of  the  crop  among  American  farmers  gen- 
erally. 

Culture. — The  largest  and  best  crops  are  grown 
where  the  seeds  are  sown  in  drills,  far  enough  apart  to 
permit  cultivation.  But  in  many  parts  of  the  country, 
especially  where  the  land  is  comparatively  low-priced, 
broadcast  sowing  is  more  commonly  practiced. 

The  seed  may  be  sown  in  July  or  August,  some- 
times in  the  early  part  of  September.  Ruta-baga  seed 
should  be  sown  earlier;  in  June  or  early  in  July.  The 
soil  should  be  finely  "  pulverized.  For  the  flat  or 
globe-shaped  varieties  deep  culture  is  not  necessary. 
The  seed  should  be  very  slightly  covered.  It  is  desira- 
ble to  sow  while  the  soil  is  moist.     Dry  weather  at 


ROOT  CROPS.  251 

the  season  at  which  the  seed  should  be  sown  is  often 
the  cause  of  a  poor  stand  of  the  plants. 

The  crop  is  sometimes  sown  among  the  standing 
corn,  soon  after  the  last  cultivation,  especially  when 
it  is  expected  to  cut  and  remove  the  corn  compara- 
tively early  in  the ,  autumn.  It  may  follow  wheat  or 
other  small  grains,  or  a  crop  of  early  harvested  pota- 
toes. When  the  soil  is  naturally  loose  the  surface 
should  be  compacted  with  the  roller  before  or  after 
seeding. 

The  harvesting  and  storing  of  the  crop  is  much  the 
same  as  with  beet  crops.  Turnips  are  less  injured  by 
freezing  than  are  beets. 

Cattle  and  sheep  usually  eat  turnips  readily. 
Horses  and  hogs  care  less  for  them.  Feeding  large 
quantities  of  turnips  to  dairy  cows  sometimes  gives 
an  unpleasant  odor  to  the  milk. 

CARROTS. 

The  carrot  (Daiicus  carota)  is  much  liked  by  many 
as  food  for  horses,  and  is  relished  by  most  farm 
animals.  It  is  especially  liable  to  injury  by  dry 
weather  and  its  early  growth  is  slow  and  feeble. 
Careful  hand  labor  in  weeding  the  young  plants  is 
usually  necessary.  This  is  a  chief  obstacle  to  its 
growth  by  farmers  generally.  It  gives  large  yields, 
500  to  700  bushels  per  acre  often  being  harvested.  It 
is  less  easily  injured  by  frost  than  are  beets.  It  does 
not  require  so  rich  land  as  the  beet.  The  methods  of 
culture  and  storing  the  crop  are  much  the  same  as 
those  found  best  for  beets.  There  are  many  varieties. 
The  long  orange  and  the  white  Belgian  are  popular 
varieties. 


252        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FAEM. 

PARSNIPS. 

The  parsnip  {Pastinaca  edulis)  has  a  pleasant 
flavor,  is  well  liked  by  stock,  is  especially  recom- 
mended for  dairy  cattle.  Unlike  most  other  roots  it 
is  improved  rather  than  injured  by  freezing,  and  may 
be  left  in  the  ground  until  spring. 

Its  culture  is  the  same  as  for  the  carrot.  The  seed 
should  be  sown  early  in  the  spring.  If  the  ground  is 
dry,  soaking  the  seed  before  sowing  is  advisable. 

JERUSALEM  ARTICHOKE. 

The  Jerusalem  artichoke  {Helianthus  tuber osus, 
L.)  is  a  coarse,  strong  growing  species  of  sunflower, 
producing  tubers  which  resemble  potatoes  in  size 
and  shape.  The  plant  is  almost  certainly  of  Amer- 
ican origin.  It  was  cultivated  both  in  America 
and  Europe  at  least  two  hundred  years  ago.  The 
word  Jerusalem  in  the  name  is  said  to  be  a 
corruption  of  the  Italian  name  for  sunflower.  It  is 
supposed  to  have  been  called  the  artichoke  from 
some  likeness  of  flavor  of  the  tubers  to  that  of  the  true 
artichoke. 

Extravagant  claims  as  to  the  value  of  this  crop  as 
food  for  stock,  especially  hogs,  have  often  been  made. 
The  tubers  are  offered  for  sale  by  most  seedsmen. 
The  plant  is  entirely  hardy,  easily  cultivated  and 
gives  enormous  yields  of  tubers,  well  liked  by  hogs. 

Once  established  the  crop  continues  to  occupy  the 
ground  year  after  year.  But  probably  not  one  farmer 
in  ten  thousand  in  the  United  States  has  cultivated 
the  crop,  and  many  who  have  tried  it  have  abandoned 
it.  It  is  not  probable  this  tuber  will  ever  be  com- 
monly grown,  but  there  is  so  little  cost  in  caring  for 
it  that  it  may  be  wqU  to  grow  it  on  a  small  scale* 


ROOT  CROPS.  253 

The  tubers  may  be  planted  in  the  same  way  as  pota- 
toes, as  early  in  the  spring  as  is  convenient.  The 
rows  should  be  three  to  four  feet  apart.  The  crop 
can  be  cultivated  in  the  same  way  as  corn  until  the 
stalks  have  made  a  fair  growth.  The  food  value  of 
the  tubers  is  low,  and  often  it  is  not  profitable  to  dig 
the  crop  and  store  the  tubers.  The  stalks  may  be  cut 
with  a  mowing  machine  and  the  tubers  plowed  to  the 
surface  and  eaten  by  pigs  turned  in  the  field.  Hogs 
will  dig  them  from  the  ground.  They  are  not  injured 
by  frost.  Usually  enough  of  the  tubers  are  left  in  the 
ground  to  continue  an  abundant  growth  the  next 
season.  The  surface  may  be  leveled  in  the  springy 
and,  after  the  crop  has  fairly  started  to  grow,  by  the 
use  of  the  plow  or  cultivator  the  plants  may  be  killed, 
except  in  rows.  Farmers  have  often  complained  of 
the  difficulty  in  getting  rid  of  the  crop,  while  it  has 
given  little  trouble  to  many  others  when  the  land  was 
planted  with  some  other  cultivated  crop. 

There  are  several  varieties,  differing  in  size, 
color  and  shape  of  the  tubers,  but  little  attention  has 
been  paid  to  selection  or  improvement  of  the  tubers. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

SUGAR  PLANTS. 

The  use  of  sugar  as  an  article  of  diet  is  almost  en- 
tirely modern.  As  an  ordinary  food  its  use  was  no- 
where common  for.  one  hundred  years  after  the  dis- 
covery of  America.  It  came  into  use  in  the  sixteenth 
century  in  connection  with  the  use  of  tea  and  coffee. 
The  annual  output  of  sugar  in  the  world  during  the 
five  years,  1885  to  1890,  is  estimated  at  rather  more 
than  five  million  tons. 

The  plants  from  which  sugar  is  made,  maple  trees 
excepted,  have  been  cultivated  from  very  remote  times. 
The  plants  which  produce  sugar  (sucrose)  are  beets, 
sugar  cane,  sorghum,  the  date  palm  and  sugar  and  other 
maples.  A  large  number  of  the  fruits  contain  sugar 
but  it  is  not  extracted  for  commercial  use. 

More  sugar  is  made  from  date  and  similar  palms 
than  from  sorghum.  Fifty  years  ago  almost  all  the 
sugar  was  made  from  sugar  cane.  There  is  now  more 
sugar  made  from  sugar  beets  than  from  sugar  cane. 

Sugar  is  produced  in  the  United  States  from  cane, 
sorghum,  beets  and  the  sap  of  maple  trees.  It  is 
principally  made  from  cane.  A  good  article  of  syrup 
has  been  made  from  watermelons. 

The  United  States  produce  about  one- twentieth  of 
the  world's  supply  of  sugar.  Louisiana  is  the  princi- 
pal sugar-producing  state. 

An  act  of  Congress  taking  effect  July  1,  1891,  pro- 
vides that  for  fourteen  years  a  bounty  shall  be  paid 
to  persons  producing  more  than  500  pounds  of  sugar 

254 


SUGAR  PLANTS.  255 

annually  from  beets,  sorghum,  sugar  cane  or  maple 
sap.  Two  cents  a  pound  is  paid  on  sugar  containing 
not  less  than  ninety  per  cent,  of  pure  sugar  and  one 
and  three-quarters  cents  on  that  containing  not  less 
than  80  nor  more  than  90  per  cent,  of  pure  sugar.  Un- 
der this  law  there  are  4,770  licensed  sugar  producers,  of 
which  4,025  produce  sugar  from  maple  sap,  731  from 
sugar  cane,  8  from  beets  and  6  from  sorghum. 

SUGAR    CANE. 

The  cultivation  of  sugar  cane  {Saccharum  officinar- 
ium)  is  very  ancient.  It  was  known  to  the  Chinese 
and  to  the  people  of  India  in  very  remote  times. 
It  was  cultivated  in  the  countries  bordering  the 
Mediterranean  in  the  Middle  Ages  and  sugar  was 
made  from  it.  The  manufacture  of  sugar  did  not 
become  commercially  important,  however,  until  the 
sixteenth  century,  at  which  time  the  plant  was 
introduced  into  the  West  Indies. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  annual  production  of  sugar 
from  cane  during  the  five  years,  1885  to  1890,  was 
about  two  and  one-third  million  tons.  The  United 
States  produces  one-quarter  of  a  million  tons. 

A  ton  of  sugar  cane  may  produce  from  150  to  300 
pounds  of  sugar.  The  average  in  Louisiana  is  proba- 
bly somewhat  over  125  pounds,  with  one-half  to  two- 
thirds  as  many  pounds  of  syrup.  There  has  been 
great  improvement  in  the  methods  of  sugar-making  in 
the  past  decade,  and  consequently  in  the  number  of 
pounds  of  sugar  obtained  from  a  ton  of  cane.  A  varia- 
tion of  from  ten  to  forty  tons  of  cane  per  acre  is  not 
extraordinary.  An  acre  of  cane  may,  therefore,  pro- 
duce from  1,000  to  8,000  pounds  of  sugar. 


256        THE  SOILS  AND  CKOPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

Structure. — The  sugar  cane  belongs  to  the  grass 
family.  It  resembles  Indian  corn  somewhat  in  its 
general  appearance  and  growth.  It  may  grow  six  to 
fourteen  feet  high  according  to  soil,  climate  and  va- 
riety. The  stalks  of  some  varieties  attain  a  diameter 
of  three  inches  and  weigh  twenty-live  pounds. 
Louisiana  cane  as  it  goes  to  the  mill  is  from  three  to 
eight  feet  long  and  may  weigh  from  one  and  one-half 
to  eight  pounds. 

In  some  varieties  the  joints  are  but  two  or  three 
inches  in  length.  In  others  they  are  eight  or  nine 
inches  in  length.  In  the  axil  of  each  leaf  or  at  each 
T/  joint  the^e  is  a  bud.  The  upper  joint,  called  the 
/  •  "arrow,"  may  be  four  to  five  feet  long  and  may  be 
terminated  in  a  panicle  of  flowers  18  to  20  inches 
high,  which  frequently  produce  seeds.  In  cultiva- 
tion the  canes  usually  do  not  flower.  Recently  it  has 
been  found  that  the  seed  from  cane  will  germinate 
and  many  hundred  new  varieties  have  been  produced 
by  this  means. 

According  to  Stubbs,  average  Louisiana  plant  cane 
will  contain  about  77  per  cent  of  water,  12.5  per  cent 
sucrose,  .7  per  cent  glucose,  8.5  per  cent  fibre  and 
1.3  per  cent  of  other  solids.  Sugar  cane  may  con- 
tain 18  to  20  per  cent  of  sugar.  Unripe  cane  may 
contain  considerably  less  sucrose  and  more  glucose. 
The  latter  is  not  only  a  loss  in  itself  but  it  prevents 
an  unknown  quantity  of  cane  sugar  from  crystallizing. 
The  quantity  of  sugar  available  also  varies  with  the 
method  of  extraction.  Seventy  per  cent  may  be  con- 
sidered a  good  average. 

Like  Indian  corn  sugar  (iane  is  very  much  modified 
by  the  conditions  under  which  it  is  grown.     There  are, 


SUGAR  PLANTS.  257 

therefore,  mauy  varieties.  Probably  the  most  striking 
variety  characteristic  is  the  color  of  the  cane,  which 
may  be  green,  red,  purple  or  yellow,  or  combinations  of 
these. 

Climate, — Sugar  cane  is  a  "Child  of  the  Sun." 
It  is  cultivated  in  the  tropics  of  both  hemispheres. 
Southern  Louisiana  is  about  the  northern  limit  of  its 
successful  culture.  It  seems  to  reach  its  best  devel- 
opment on  islands  and  sea  coasts ;  hence  in  a  moisture- 
laden  atmosphere.     Cold  is  detrimental. 

Soil. — Sugar  cane  may  be  raised  on  any  fertile  soil 
with  proper  drainage  and  tillage.  A  soil  suitable  to 
the  growth  of  Indian  corn  in  a  sugar  cane  climate 
will  grow  cane  successfully.  An  excess  of  humus 
produces  a  large  yield  at  the  expense  of  sugar  con- 
tent. Fresh  soils  are  not  quite  so  good  as  those 
which  have  been  cultivated  somewhat. 

Systematic  manuring  is  not  generally  practiced. 
The  waste  products — leaves  and  bagasse,  are  more  or 
less  completely  returned  to  the  soil.  Where  fuel  is 
scarce  the  bagasse  is  burned  and  only  the  ashes  are 
returned. 

Sugar  comes  from  the  air  and  not  from  the  soil.  If 
only  the  sugar  was  removed  the  soil  would  not  de- 
crease in  fertility.  Molasses  contains  some  soil  ele- 
ments, principally  potash. 

Experiments  show  that  green  manuring  with  cow 
peas  and  other  leguminous  crops  is  beneficial.  A  ro- 
tation including  these  crops  may  be  more  profitable 
if  they  can  be  economically  used. 

Nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid  are  more  valuable 
than  potash  for  the  production  of  sugar  cane.  An 
excess  of  nitrogen  decreases  the  sugar  content. 


258       THE  SOILS  AND  CEOPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

Oaltare. — Sugar  cane  is  reproduced  by  cuttings. 
The  upper  part  of  the  cane  contains  much  less  sugar 
than  the  lower  part  and  is  considered,  if  anything, 
superior  for  planting. 

Methods  vary.  The  seed-bed  is  prepared  about  as 
for  Indian  corn.  The  land  is  laid  out  with  a  plow 
into  furrows  from  five  to  seven  feet  apart  and  six  to 
ten  inches  deep.  Sometimes  holes  are  dug  by  hand. 
Into  these  furrows  canes  are  laid  end  to  end,  slightly 
over-lapping.  Two  or  more  may  be  laid  side  by  side. 
When  two  canes  are  laid  side  by  side  it  takes  four 
tons  of  cane  to  plant  an  acre.  The  canes  are  cut  in- 
to convenient  lengths  for  handling  before  planting. 
It  is  not  essential  to  the  growth  of  the  cane. 

In  Louisiana  it  is  con3idered  good  practice  to  plant 
thin  enough  to  allow  the  plants  to  stool  or  tiller  freely. 
An  acre  may  produce  from  15,000  to  45,000  canes. 

After  the  cuttings  are  planted,  they  are  covered 
with  a  couple  of  inches  of  loose  earth.  As  the  plants 
grow  the  earth  is  gradually  filled  in  about  them  un- 
til the  ditch  is  full  and  the  soil  is  hilled  or  banked  up 
about  the  plants.  This  is  supposed  to  help  the  canes 
to  maintain  an  erect  position. 

The  planting  may  be  done  in  the  fall,  winter  or 
spring. 

A  field  once  set  in  cane  may  remain  many  years, 
each  succeeding  crop  giving  a  decreasing  yield  of  su- 
gar. The  rapidity  of  the  decrease  depends  largely 
upon  the  locality.  The  length  of  time  it  is  desirable 
to  maintain  a  field  without  replanting  will  depend 
upon  the  rapidity  of  the  decrease  and  the  cost  of 
planting.  In  Louisiana  it  is  considered  good  practice 
to  replant  about  one-third  of  the  land  annually. 


» 


StJGAIi  PLANTS.  259 

Cane  is  ground  during  November  and  December. 
The  remaining  leaves  are  removed  and  the  tops,  with 
a  couple  of  the  upper  joints,  are  discarded.  This  is 
usually  done  in  the  field.  Where  there  is  danger 
from  frost  the  canes  are  often  thrown  in  a  windrow, 
so  that  the  tops  cover  the  lower  parts  of  the  canes 
just  in  front  of  them. 

The  manufacture  of  sugar  may  be  simple  and  with 
comparatively  inexpensive  machinery,  but  for  the  best 
results,  both  in  quantity  and  quality,  an  extensive 
plant,  large  capital  and  much  skill  and  technical 
knowledge  is  required  and  cannot  be  described  here 
in  detail.     In  brief  the  steps  are  about  as  follows: 

The  juice  is  extracted  by  some  form  of  pressure, 
which  ruptures  the  cells  and  allows  the  juice  to  escape, 
or  by  diffusion,  in  which  the  juice  flows  out  of  the 
cells  on  the  same  principle  that  it  flows  from  one  cell 
to  another.  The  juice  is  then  purified  by  heat,  chem- 
icals and  filtration.  The  surplus  water  is  next  evapor- 
ated and  the  thickened  syrup  set  away  in  a  proper 
temperature,  when  the  sugar  crystallizes.  The  mo- 
lasses may  then  be  allowed  to  drain  away  through 
openings  in  the  bottom  of  the  receptacle,  such  as  a 
hogshead,  or  the  molasses  may  be  extracted  by  plac- 
ing the  massicuite  in  a  rapidly  revolving  cylinder, 
whose  sides  are  a  sieve  which  allows  the  molasses  to 
escape,  but  retains  the  crystals  of  sugar. 

The  result  is  a  soft  sugar  of  a  varying  color  from 
brown  to  white  and  varying  in  purity,  according  to 
the  skill  in  manufacture  and  the  completeness  with 
which  the  molasses  is  extracted.  These  processes 
are  usually  performed  on  the  plantation;  the  sub- 
sequent refining,  frequently  at  some  distant  refinery. 


^60   THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

Nearly  all  the  sugar  now  made  in  Louisiana  is  refined 
during  the  process  of  manufacture  on  the  plantation. 

SORGHUM. 

Sorghum  {Sorghum  Saccharatum)  is  the  only  agri- 
culturally important  plant  which  has  been  introduced 
into  the  United  States  since  the  American  Revolution. 
It  was  introduced  about  1845  from  China  and  was 
widely  distributed  during  the  decade  prior  to  the  war 
between  the  states. 

Since  that  time  it  has  been  somewhat  extensively 
grown  in  a  secondary  way  for  the  production  of  mo- 
lasses. It  has  been  grown  in  China  many  thousands 
of  years.for  it§  seed,  which  is  used  for  food  both  for 
man  and  beast.  It  is  claimed  that  it  has  never  been 
used  there  either  for  syrup  or  sugar.  Broom  corn, 
Kaffir  corn,  !Millo  maize,  Doura,  etc.,  are  non-saccha- 
rine varieties  of  sorghum. 

In  1879,  28  million  gallons  of  sorghum  molasses 
were  produced  in  the  United  States.  This  was  nearly 
twice  as  much  as  cane  molasses  and  nearly  twenty 
times  as  much  as  of  maple  syrup.  The  production 
of  sorghum  molasses  has  probably  sensibly  declined 
since  that  time. 

Prior  to  that  time  but  little  sugar  was  produced 
from  sorghum  and  but  little  systematic  effort  was 
made  to  produce  it.  During  the  past  decade  the  sub- 
ject of  producing  sugar  from  sorghum  has  been  thor- 
oughly studied  and  several  plants  have  been  estab- 
lished in  different  states  for  its  manufacture.  A  con- 
siderable quantity  of  good  sugar  has  been  produced 
but  the  commercial  status  of  the  industry  is  still  un- 
settled. 


SUGAR  PLANTS.  261 

AssumiDg  a  favorable  climate  some  of  the  difficul- 
ties have  been : 

1.  A  rather  small  yield  of  cane.  The  yield  of 
cane  has  varied  tinder  normal  conditions  from  about 
five  to  ten  tons  of    clean  cane  per  acre. 

2.  A  low  average  percentage  of  sugar  in  the  cane. 
The  percentage  of  sugar  is  much  more  variable  than 
in  sugar  cane  or  beets.  The  other  solids  are  higher, 
thus  making  the  per  cent  of  available  sugar  still  less. 
The  total  per  cent  of  sugar  in  the  juice  of  sorghum 
manufactured  commercially  has  probably  been  consid- 
erably under  ten  per  cent. 

3.  The  rapid  deterioration  of  the  sugar  in  the  sor- 
ghum from  unknown  causes  usually  considered  cli- 
matic or  from  improper  handling.  Sugar  cane  may 
lie  some  weeks  before  it  is  used ;  beets  may  be  stored 
for  months;  sorghum  must  be  used  at  once. 

4.  Imperfect  methods  of  extracting  the  juice. 

5.  Improper  treatment  of  the  extracted  juice. 

All  these  difficulties  must  be  overcome  before  the 
manufacture  of  sorghum  sugar  can  be  a  success.  In 
the  nature  of  the  case  the  first  three  items  are  the 
most  serious. '  The  United  States  Department  of  Ag- 
riculture is  still  faithfully  studying  the  subject. 

Varieties. — Other  things  equal  early  maturing 
varieties  are  best.  Later  maturing  varieties  may  be 
planted  to  produce  a  succession  of  cane.  Early  Am- 
ber and  the  Oranges  under  different  prefixes  have 
probably  been  grown  as  extensively  as  any  other  vari- 
eties. The  former  is  probably  the  best  early  matur- 
ing variety  grown.  Link's  hybrid  is  another  well 
known  late  variety.     The  variety  to  plant  will  depend 


262         THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

very  much  upon  the  latitude,  aud  requires  special 
study  in  each  case. 

Improvement  of  sorghum  by  planting  the  seed  of 
canes  showing  a  high  content  of  cane  sugar  is  being 
attempted  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture with  hopeful  prospects.  The  process  is  easy. 
There  are  two  obvious  difficulties,  viz :  (1)  The  variabil- 
ity of  the  sugar  content  apart  from  variety,  and  (2)  the 
fact  that  the  seed  has  been  produced  by  cross -fertili- 
zation with  pollen  of  an  unknown  plant.  Here  as  else- 
where, the  more  highly  bred  the  plants  are,  the  less 
injury  from  the  second  source. 

Climate, — Sorghum  will,  grow  anywhere  where 
Indian  corn  will  grow,  but  is  better  adapted  to  the 
warmer  and  dryer  parts  of  the  United  States.  The 
area  for  the  production  of  sugar  is  restricted.  Where 
the  season  is  short  the  plant  does*  not  ripen  sugar  but 
will  produce  molasses.  Sufficient  time  must  elapse 
after  the  cane  is  ripe  to  allow  it  to  be  worked.  The 
climate  of  Kansas  and  the  Indian  Territory  is  be- 
lieved to  be  particularly  favorable  to  the  growth  of 
sorghum  as  a  sugar  plant. 

It  stands  drouth  rather  better  than  Indian  corn. 
For  this  reason  it  is  used  in  .some  localities  for  fodder 
in  place  of  Indian  corn.  Experience  teaches  that  the 
fodder  is  inferior  to  the  latter. 

Culture. — The  soil  and  culture  adapted  to  sor- 
ghum is  similar  to  that  of  Indian  corn.  It  grows 
slowly  during  the  early  part  of  its  growth.  Hence 
the  necessity  of  a  well  prepared  seed-bed. 

Planting  should  be  delayed  until  the  soil  and  at- 
mosphere is  fairly  warm,  say  ten  days  later  than  corn. 
It  is  usually  plantedin  drills  with  the  drill  rows  the 


SUGAR  PLANTS.  263 

same  distance  apart  as  corn.  The  aim  is  to  have  the 
plants  about  twice  as  thick  as  for  corn.  It  is  usual 
to  plant  over  twice  as  much  seed,  because  it  does 
not  germinate  so  freely  and  evenly.  If  too  thick  it 
may  be  thinned  when  the  crop  is  hoed. 

As  the  plants  start  so  slowly  it  is  usually  necessary  to 
hoe  the  crop  once  or  twice  during  the  fore  part  of  its 
growth,  to  keep  it  from  being    smothered    by  weeds. 

After  it  gets  started  it  grows  rapidly.  The  cane 
should  be  cut  when  the  seeds  are  in  the  hardening 
dough.  For  molasses  it  is  usually  topped  and 
stripped  of  leaves  by  hand.  At  sugar  factories  the 
cane  is  cut  up  into  pieces  an  inch  or  so  long  with  the 
leaves  on  and  the  leaves  afterward  are  removed  with 
a  fanning  mill. 

The  seed  has  some  value  as  a  stock  food.  To  be 
most  economically  used  the  seed  should  be  siloed. 

SUGAR    BEET. 

Sugar  was  first  extracted  from  the  beet  in  a  Ger- 
man laboratory  in  1747.  It  was  not,  however, 
until  1795  that  sugar  was  manufactured  from 
them.  It  was  not  until  thirty  years  later  in 
France  and  forty  years  later  in  Germany  that  the 
manufacture  of  sugar  from  beets  became  an  estab- 
lished industry.  It  is  estimated  that  during  the  five 
years  1885  to  1890 — fifty  years  later — there  were 
three  million  tons  of  sugar  manufactured  in  Europe^, 
Germany  produces  considerably  more  than  any  otUer 
country. 

About  sixteen  tons  of  beets,  containing  fifteen  per 
cent  of  sugar,  was  the  average  for  Saxony  in  1888. 
About  35,000  beets  were  grown  per  acre.  Possibly 
250  pounds  of  sugar  per  ton  or  4,000  pounds  per 


264        THE  SOILS  AND  CKO?S  OF  THE  FARM. 


acre  could  be  recovered  in  manufacturing.  This 
probably  represents  beet  culture  under  its  most  highly 
improved  condition. 

The  production  of  sugar  from  beets  was  first  at- 
tempted in  America  in  1880.  Since  1863  more  or  less 
continuous  attempts  have  been  made  in  various  sec- 
tions of  the  country.  One  factory  in  California  has 
been  running  more  or  less  suc- 
cessfully during  the  past  few 
years  and  several  others  have 
recently  been  established.  At- 
tempts are  now  being  made  to 
introduce  the  culture  and  man- 
ufacture into  Nebraska,  Kansas 
and  other  states.  The  economical 
production  of  the  beets  is  the 
main  difficulty  to  be  overcome. 
It  is  hoped  that  the  manufacture 
of  sugar  from  sorghum  and  beets 
may  be  profitably  combined, 
although  the  best  climatic  con- 
ditions for  each  are  not  the  same. 
Varieties. — There  were  four 
varieties  of  the  common  beet 
(Beta  vulgaris)  known  at  the  time 
the  manufacture  of  sugar  began, 
viz. :  The  small  and  large  red,  the  yellow  and  the 
white.  It  was  the  white  variety  which  was  selected 
for  the  manufacture  of  sugar. 

At  the  time  the  manufacture  of  sugar  began  the 
juice  of  the  beet  contained  only  six  per  cent  of  cane 
sugar.  By  subjecting  beets  to  chemical  and  physical 
tests   Qnd   only  growing  those   for  seed  which  had 


vilmokin's 
Improved  Beet. 


SUGAR  PLANTS. 


265 


a  high  percentage  of  sugar,  varieties  have  been  pro- 
duced, such  as  Vilmorin's  Improved,  which  produce 
yegularly  15  to  18  per  cent  of  sugar.  This  process 
has  been  aided  by  judicious  cultivation  and  fertiliza- 
tion. The  selection  of  "Mothers"  of  a  known  quality 
for  the  production  of  seed  is  systematically  carried  on. 
Cost  of  the  seed  is  an  important  item  in  beet  culture. 

The  essentials  of  a  good  variety  are  large  yields, 
high  sugar  content,  purity 
of  the  juice  and  keeping 
quality  of  the  beets.  The 
beet  should  have  an  even 
texture,  smooth  outline  and 
symmetrical  shape.  The 
typical  sugar  beet  should 
weigh  rather  more  than  a 
pound,  contain  14  per  cent 
of  sugar,  and  80  per  cent 
of  the  total  solids  in  the  juice 
should  be  cane  sugar.  There 
is  a  tendency  for  the  total 
yield  of  the  beet  to  decrease 
with  the  increase  in  the  per 
cent  of  sugar.  Extremes  in 
either  direction  should  be 
avoided.  / 

The  type  of  the  sugar  beet  is  to  be  seen  in  the 
White  Silesian,  which  is  the  one  from  which  all  other 
varieties  have  been  derived.  It  is  the  variety  largely 
used  in  Europe.  Vilmorin's  Improved  and  Klein 
Wanzlebener  are  the  two  which  have  been  most  widely 
grown  in  this  country. 

It  is  not  at  all  improbable  that  the  beet  sugai  in- 


White  Silesian  Beet. 


266        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

dustry  in  America  will  not  reach  its  fullest  develop- 
ment until  varieties  have  been  produced  by  selection 
and  cultivation  which  are  adapted  to  the  conditions 
of  soil  and  climate  of  the  country. 

Climate. — The  proper  climatic  conditions  are  very 
essential  to  the  successful  culture  of  the  sugar  beet. 
These  are  so  complex  as  not  to  be  capable  of  predic- 
tion with  certainty  in  advance  of  trial.  It  has  been 
found  in  general  that  an  average  temperature  of  70 
degrees  Fahrenheit  during  the  months  of  June,  July 
and  August,  and  a  minimum  rain- fall  of  two  inches 
per  month  during  these  months,  is  desirable.  This 
limits  the  area  of  profitable  production  east  of  the 
one-hundredth  meridian  to  an  irregular  strip  whose 
central  portion  lies  mostly  between  the  42d  and  44th 
parallels  of  latitude.  According  to  this  standard 
much  of  the  Pacific  States  would  be  suited  to  the  pro- 
duction of  sugar  beets. 

These  are  not  the  only  desirable  conditions.  Ex- 
cess of  rain  in  the  autumn  months  is  harmful.  Early 
approach  of  severe  cold  weather  is  undesirable.  In 
general,  the  comparatively  dry  and  warm  weather  of 
July  and  August  ripens  the  beets  before  they  have  ob- 
tained sufficient  size,  and  upon  the  recurrence  of 
growing  weather  in  the  latter  part  of  August  and  in 
September  the  beets  are  apt  to  begin  to  grow  again, 
in  doing  which  the  stored-up  sugar  is  used. 

{Soil. — The  area  limited  by  climate  is  still  further 
limited  by  the  necessity  of  a  proper  soil.  Depth  of 
soil  is  essential  to  either  large  yield  or  high  sugar 
content.  The  surface  soil  should  be  ten  to  twelve 
inches  deep  and  the  subsoil  should  be  porous  and 
either  naturally  or  artificially  well  drained.     The  soil 


SUGAR  PLANTS.  267 

should  be  friable,  contain  an  abundance  of  lime  and 
lie  in  such  a  way  as  to  get  the  full  exposure  of  the 
sun.  Soils  that  have  been  in  crops  several  years  give 
better  results  than  new  soils. 

For  method  of  planting,  culture  and  harvesting  see 
chapter  on  Root  Crops. 


» 


CHAPTER   XXIV. 

FIBRE   CROPS. 
COTTON. 

Hiiitory. — The  general  cultivation  of  cotton  is  not 
very  ancient  as  compared  with  that  of  wheat.  In  a 
limited  way  it  was  cultivated  in  southeastern  India  in 
early  times.  The  clothing  of  the  ancient  Egyptians 
was  made  from  wool  and  flax.  Alexander  the  Great 
is  supposed  to  have  brought  the  culture  and  use  of 
cotton  to  the  notice  of  Europeans.  It  was  found  in 
cultivation  and  use  from  Mexico  and  the  West  Indies 
to  Brazil  and  Peru  when  America  was  discovered. 

The  cultivation  of  cotton  in  the  United  States  was 
very  limited  before  the  Revolutionary  War.  It  is 
said  that  in  1784  eight  bales  of  American  cotton  were 
confiscated  in  Liverpool  on  the  plea  that  cotton  did 
not  grow  in  America. 

Production. — The  culture  of  cotton  became  one 
of  the  World's  industries  upon  the  invention  of  the 
cotton  gin  by  Eli  Whitney  in  1792.  In  1791  the 
yield  of  cotton  in  the  United  States  was  two  million 
pounds;  in  1801,  forty-eight  million  pounds,  while  for 
the  decade  just  closed  the  average  annual  yield  has 
been  three  billion  pounds. 

The  leading  cotton  producing  states  in  the  order  of 
their  importance  are  Texas,  Mississippi,  Georgia  and 
Alabama.  The  cultivation  per  land  surface  is  greatest 
in  Mississippi.  It  is  almost  exclusively  produced  in 
ten  states — the  eight  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  States 
with  Tennessee  and  Arkansas. 

268 


I'IBRE  CROPS.  260 

The  acreage  in  cotton  in  the  United  States  is  now 
only  exceeded  by  corn,  wheat,  hay  and  oats.  It  ex- 
ceeds in  value  the  oat  crop.  The  following  table 
gives  the  essential  features  of  the  crop  of  cotton  of 
1888: 

Area,  acres 19,000,«)00. 

Yield,  bales 7,000,000, 

Value,  dollars 292,000,000. 

Yield  per  acre,  pounds 180. 

Price  per  pound,  cents 8i. 

Value  per  acre,  dollars 15.30. 

A  bale  of  cotton  containing  400  to  500  pounds  is 
considered  a  good  yield  per  acre.  Over  2,500 
pounds  of  cotton  have  been  reported  from  a  single 
acre. 

The  United  States  produces  about  half  the  cotton 
grown  in  the  world.  About  two -thirds  of  it  is  ex- 
ported in  the  raw  state.  Practically  all  the  cotton  of 
commerce  is  manufactured  in  Europe  and  the  United 
States,  The  latter  manufactures  about  one-fourth  of 
it.  The  rest  is  about  equally  divided  between  the 
United  Kingdom  and  the  Continent. 

Use. — The  cotton  plant  is  in  many  respects  the 
most  important  upon  the  globe.  It  furnishes  the 
clothing  of  the  larger  portion  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
world.  It  is  subject  to  more  extended  and  varied 
uses  under  the  widest  conditions  of  climate  and  civili- 
zation than  is  any  other  fibre.  It  is  the  most  im- 
portant article  of  trade. 

The  seed  yields  about  fifteen  per  cent  of  its  weight 
in  oil,  which  is  used  as  a  lubricant  in  paints,  for  burn- 
ing in  mines  and  for  making  soap.  The  refined  oil  is 
used  as  a  food  directly  or  in  butterine  and  lard  and 
in  place  of  olive  oil.     Although  a  perfectly  desirable 


m       THE  SOILS  AND  CEOPS  or  THE  EAUM. 

and  healthful  article  of  food  its  use  is  unfortunately 
somewhat  surreptitious. 

The  kernel  after  the  oil  is  extracted  is  about  35  per 
cent  of  the  seed  and  is  the  cotton  seed  meal  or  cake 
used  in  stock  feeding.  The  cotton  seed  meal  is  also 
used  as  a  fertilizer.  It  is  the  source  of  nitrogen  in 
some  commercial  fertilizers.  The  hulls  are  used  for 
fuel,  fertilizer  or  food  for  stock.  For  cattle  feeding 
they  are  worth  about  as  much  as  rather  poor  hay. 

Climate, — The  culture  of  cotton  is  not  only  in- 
creasing both  in  the- world  and  in  the  United  States 
but  the  extent  of  its  possible  production  is  almost 
unlimited.  It  can  be  cultivated  in  all  inhabited  sec- 
tions of  the  world  lying  between  parallels  of  36  de- 
grees of  latitude  north  and  south.  Therein  lies  the 
largest  land  surface  of  the  globe. 

It  is  now  mostly  cultivated  between  parallels  20  de- 
grees and  35  degrees  north  latitude.  In  the  United 
States  it  is  principally  cultivated  between  parallels 
30  degrees  and  35  degrees.  Cotton  requires  hot,  clear 
skies.  Rainfall  during  picking  season  is  very  inju- 
rious. It,  therefore,  is  more  largely  grown  inland. 
North  of  the  35th  parallel  the  seasons  are  too  short 
for  economical  production.  The  plant  requires  four 
to  five  months  to  bring  it  to  maturity,  and  then  there 
should  be  two  to  three  months  without  killing  frost 
for  picking. 

Soil. — The  area  of  production  in  the  United  States 
is  somewhat  restricted  in  practice  by  the  nature  of  the 
soil.  The  soils  mostly  used  are  the  river  bottom  soils, 
the  black  or  cane-brake  lands,  the  red  lands,  and  the 
black  rolling  prairie  lands  of  Texas.  Mellow,  friable 
soils  which  are  easily  worked  by  light  machinery  are 


FIBliE  CHOPS.  271 

preferred.  They  should  contain  a  good  supply  of 
vegetable  matter  and  be  well  drained. 

The  lint  contains  but  a  trifling  quantity  of  fertiliz- 
ing material.  For  each  pound  of  lint  there  are  about 
two  pounds  of  seed.  The  seed  is  about  from  one- 
eighth  to  one-fifth  part  of  the  plant  and  is  rich  in  the 
precious  elements.  The  seed  is  not  injured  either  as 
a  fertilizer  or  as  a  stock  food  by  the  extraction  of 
the  oil.  If  all  the  plant  except  the  lint  and  oil  is  re- 
turned to  the  soil  the  loss  of  fertility  by  the  sale  of 
the  products  is  trifling.  The  soil  loses  fei-tility  by 
the  oxidation  of  the  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil 
during  the  hot  summer  months,  and  the  washing  away 
of  the  material  thus  made  soluble  during  the  winter 
months.  The  comparative  bareness  of  the  soil  facili- 
tates both  these  processes. 

Varieties. — Cotton  belongs  to  a  family  of  plants, 
Malvacae,  which  is  entirely  different  from  the  cereals 
and  grasses.  Okra  and  hollyhock  belong  to  the  same 
family.  There  are  several  species  of  cotton,  all  of 
which  are  perennial.  The  cultivated  species  are 
treated  as  annuals. 

The  principally  cultivated  species  is  the  common 
upland  or  short  staple  cotton,  Goasypiuni  herbaceum. 
It  is  a  shrubby  plant  having  alternate  stalked  and 
lobed  leaves  and  a  long  deep  tap-root.  The  flower  is 
white  or  cream-colored  on  the  first  day,  turns  red  on 
the  second  and  falls  on  the  third,  leaving  a  small  boll 
enveloped  in  the  calyx.  The  boll  is  three  to  five 
celled  and  when  ripe  is  the  size  and  shape  of  a  fowl's 
egg.  When  ripe  it  bursts  open  through  ihe  middle 
of  the  cells,  liberating  numerous  dark  colored  seeds 
covered  with  cotton. 


272        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FAUM. 

When  planted  in  April  it  flowers  in  June.  The 
bolls  begin  to  open  in  August  and  continue  until 
killed  by  frost  in  November.  The  cotton  is  picked  by- 
hand  from  time  to  time  as  a  sufficient  number  of  bolls 
become  open  to  make  it  pay  to  go  over  the  field.  The 
most  and  best  cotton  is  picked  in  September  and  Octo- 
ber. 

The  Sea  Island  or  long  staple  cotton,  Gossypium 
Barbadense,  is  produced  to  a -limited  extent  along 
the  coast  of  South  Carolina  and  Florida.  It  is  char- 
acterized by  a  fine,  soft,  silky  staple  nearly  two  inches 
long.  It  commands  a  higher  price  than  the  upland 
cotton  but  does  not  usually  yield  as  much  per  acre. 
This  is  more  largely  produced  in  the  West  Indies. 

There  are  a  great  many  varieties  of  these  species 
and  in  some  instances  considerable  care  is  taken  to 
produce  good  varieties  and  to  plant  with  seed  of  im- 
proved varieties,  but  in  the  majority  of  cases  very  lit- 
tle attention  is  paid  to  the  kind  or  quality  of  the  seed. 
The  quantity  of  seed  planted  is  enormous.  From  a 
bushel  to  three  bushels,  per  acre,  containing  from 
100,000  to  150,000  seeds  per  bushel,  is  a  very  general 
practice.     The  excess  of  seed  is  a  valuable  fertilizer. 

Onlture. — Land  which  has  been  in  other  crops  is 
sometimes  fall  plowed,  cotton  land  seldom.  The 
depth  of  plowing  varies  greatly,  but  is  often  only  two 
to  four  inches  deep.  Cotton  is  almost  universally 
planted  in  ridges.  Frequently  the  land  is  not  pre- 
viously plowed.  Furrows  are  opened  into  which  may 
be  placed  any  rubbish  or  fertilizer  as  desired.  Over 
these  furrows  the  land  is  thrown  into  ridges  by  back 
furrowing.  The  distance  apart  of  the  ridges  varies 
in  extreme  cases  from  two  to  seven  feet.     The  richer 


JPIBRE  CROPS.  273 

the  soil  and  consequently  the  larger  the  growth  of 
the  plant,  the  further  apart  the  ridges.  Four  to  live 
feet  is  usual.  Sometimes  the  space  between  the 
ridges  is  not  plowed,  after-cultivation  being  depended 
upon.  Thorough  preparation  of  the  seed  bed,  how- 
ever, is  desirable. 

When  the  planting  is  done  by  hand  a  furrow  is 
opened  on  the  top  of  the  ridge  with  a  small  plow,  in- 
to which  the  seed  is  scattered  in  profusion.  The  seed 
is  covered  about  an  inch  deep  with  a  light  harrow  or  a 
plank  attached  to  the  bottom  of  a  small  plow.  Cot- 
ton planters  are  now  used  successfully  which  with  less 
seed  plant  uniformly  in  straight  rows — important  con- 
ditions in  the  after -cultivation. 

The  time  of  planting  varies  with  the  latitude,  the 
season  and  the  soil,  from  the  fii'st  of  March  to  the 
middle  of  May.  Much  of  it  is  planted  in  the  first 
half  of  April.  The  richer  the  soil  the  later  the  plant- 
ing may  be  postponed. 

The  germination  is  very  variable.  In  general, 
about  two  weeks  after  the  seed  is  planted  the  plants 
will  be  several  inches  high  and  have  three  or  four 
leaves.  It  is  then  cultivated  by  plowing  the  land 
from  the  cotton,  after  which  the  cottOn  plants  are 
chopped  out  with  a  hoe,  leaving  several  plants  in  a 
place  at  distances  varying  with  the  nature  of  the  soil 
and  consequent  growth  of  the  plant.  The  distance 
may  vary  from  ten  to  forty-eight  inches,  twelve  to 
twenty-four  inches  being  the  most  common  distance. 
The  plants  are  subsequently  thinned  to  one  or  two  in 
a  place. 

In  the  thinning  the  weeds  or  grass ,  in  the  row  are 
removed  as  completely  as  may  be.     At  the  next  culti- 


274        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

vation  the  soil  is  thrown  to  the  row.  Cultivation  con- 
tinues until  the  plants  shade  the  ground,  which  is 
usually  in  the  latter  part  of  July.  The  early  culti- 
vation may  be  deep  but  the  later  cultivation  should 
be  as  shallow  as  possible  for  thorough  weed  killing. 
Practically  all  the  cotton  of  the  world  is  raised  by 
colored  labor. 

FLAX. 

The  history  of  flax  is  contemporaneous  with  that  of 
wheat.  The  clothing  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  and 
Hebrews  was  largely  made  of  flax,  and  its  culture  has 
been  handed  down  with  our  civilization.  Its  culture 
was  introduced  into  Europe  in  very  remote  times. 
Flax  fibre  is  comparatively  much  less  important  than 
before  the  general  introduction  of  cotton.  The  princi- 
pal sources  of  supply  are  Eussia,  Germany,  the  Neth- 
erlands and  Ireland. 

The  crop  of  1891,  which  was  probably  the  largest 
ever  produced  in  the  United  States,  was  raised  on  a 
little  less  than  two  million  acres,  with  an  averao^e 
yield  of  about  eight  bushels  per  acre.  The  acreage  was 
about  the  same  as  that  of  barley,  rye  or  potatoes. 
The  crop  is  almost  all  raised  west  of  the  Mississippi 
River,  it  having  traveled  westward  with  the  pioneer 
farmer.  Minnesota  and  South  Dakota  are  at  present 
the  leading  states. 

Flax  is  grown  both  for  its  fibre  and  for  its  seed, 
sometimes  for  the  one,  sometimes  for  the  other,  and 
sometimes  for  both.  The  seed  yields  twenty  to  twen- 
ty-eight per  cent  of  oil  of  the  best  quality  for  use  in 
painting.  The  residue,  linseed  meal,  is  used  in  cattle 
feeding,  considerable  quantities  of    it  being  exported. 

The  fibre  is  obtained    from  the   bark  of  the  plant 


FIBHE  CROPS.  ^75 

and  consists  of  the  long  straight  lint  called  flax  and 
the  short  tangled  fibre  which  separates  in  dressing 
from  the  long  lint,  called  tow.  Coarse  tow  is  made 
by  simply  removing  the  remaining  part  of  the  stem, 
and  baling  the  tangled  mass.  It  is  used  in  upholster- 
ing, in  making  twine,  bagging,  paper,  etc. 

Flax  is  almost  entirely  raised  in  the  United  States 
as  a  seed  crop.  *  In  localities  favorably  situated  coarse 
tow  is  produced.  When  not  used  in  making  tow  the 
straw  is  allowed  to  rot,  is  burned,  or  stacked  and 
eaten  by  stock.  It  is  sometimes  said  to  produce  in- 
jurious results,  although  large  quantities  are  eaten  by 
stock  without  injury  to  them. 

Flax  may  be  grown  in  any  climate  where  wheat  is 
grown,  but  for  the  best  production  of  fibre  requires  a 
continuously  moist  but  not  excessively  wet  climate. 

In  the  United  States  it  is  a  new  land  crop,  especi- 
ally in  spring  wheat  regions,  where  corn  is  rela,tively 
less  productive.  This  production  has  been  sufficient 
to  supply  the  somewhat  limited  demand  for  seed  and 
tow.  Sandy  loams  are  rather  better  than  clay  loams, 
although  any  soil  adapted  to  cereal  crops  will  grow 
flax. 

It  has  long  been  known  that  flax  could  not  be  grown 
continuously  on  the  same  land  in  some  localities. 
This  has  recently  been  shown  by  Lugger  to  be  due  to 
some  active  principle  in  the  plant  which  upon  being 
absorbed  into  the  soil  is  injurious  to  a  succeeding 
crop  of  flax.  At  least  five  years  should  elapse  before 
flax  is  again  sown  on  the  same  land. 

Flax  {Linum  usitatissimum)  \»  a  herbaceous  plant, 
generally  two  or  three  feet  high,  with  alternate,  stem- 
less,  entire  leaves.     The  blue  flowers  are  produced  in 


2%        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OP  THE  FABM. 

clusters  at  the  end  of  the  branches.  Each  seed  pro- 
duces a  single  stem.  Unlike  the  cereals  the  plant  is 
much  modified  by  the  thickness  of  seeding.  When 
the  plants  grow  alone  or  thinly  the  stems  produce 
many  branches  and  consequently  many  seeds.  When 
sown  sufficiently  thick  no  branches  are  produced    ex- 


Thick  Seeding.  Flax  Plant  Gbowing  Alone. 

cept  at  the  top  and  but  few  seeds,  but  the  fibre  is  of 
superior  quality.  When  fibre  is  the  chief  object 
three  to  four  bushels  of  seed  are  sown  per  acre,  when 
seed  only  is  desired  two  to  three  pecks.  It  is  claimed 
that  a  satisfactory  quantity  of  seed  and  fair  quality  of 
tow  may  be  obtained  by  sowing  six  pecks  per  acre. 


FIBRE  CROPS.  277 

There  are  three  varieties  of  flax:  petenniai,  winter 
and  summer  flax.  Of  summer  flax  thepe  are  two 
types.  In  one  the  seed  bolls  burst  open  and  scatter 
the  seed,  in  the  other  they  do  not.  Only  the  latter  is 
cultivated  to  any  considerable  extent.  Of  course  there 
are  varieties  of  this  type. 

The  culture  of  flax  for  seed  is  not  essentially  differ- 
ent from  that  of  spring  wheat..  As  the  seeds  are 
much  smaller  rather  more  care  is  needed  in  preparing 
the  seed-bed  and  in  distributing  and  covering  the 
seed.  It  may  all  be  done  with  ordinary  machinery, 
however. 

It  is  a  pleasant  crop  to  harvest  with  the  self-bind- 
er. It  is  not  readily  damaged  while  standing  in  the 
shock.  It  may  be  thrashed  with  the  ordinary  thrash- 
ing machine. 

When  cultivated  for  its  fibre,  weeds  growing  in  the 
crop  reduce  the  value  of  fibre  by  their  presence.  It 
is  essential  that  previous  cultivation  of  the  land  be 
such  as  to  free  the  land  as  much  as  may  be  from 
weed  seeds.  Where  fine  fibre  is  raised  the  crop  is 
frequently  weeded  by  hand.  Sometimes  sheep  are 
employed,  as  they  will  eat  the  weeds  and  not  the  flax. 

The  harvesting,  which  is  usually  done  by  pulling 
the  plants;  the  retting,  or  rotting,  which  is  done  in  a 
running  stream  or  stagnant  pool,  and  the  scutching 
to  remove  the  shives  or  the  parts  of  the  plant  not 
fibre,  will  depend  upon  the  demands  of  the  market 
for  which  the  crop  is  grown  and  need  not  be  described 
here. 

HEMP. 

Hemp  (Cannabis  sativa)  a  plant  closely  related  to 
the  hop  and  ramie^is  a  native  of  Western  and  Central 


278        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

Asia,  and  has  been  cultivated  from  remote  times  in 
China. 

It  is  now  extensively  cultivated  in  many  countries 
for  one  or  more  of  three  purposes :  (1 )  the  fibre  of  its 
stems;  (2)  the  resin  exuded  on  leaves  and  stems;  (3) 
and  for  its  oily  seeds.  In  some  places  it  is  grown 
chiefly  for  the  resinous  exudation,  from  which  various 
intoxicating  preparations  are  made.  Five  times  the 
population  of  the  United  States  get  drunk  on  these 
preparations. 

Hemp  was  one  of  the  first  plants  introduced 
by  the  American  colonists.  It  is  now  considerably 
grown  in  the  United  States  for  its  fibre,  from  which 
cordage  and  coarse  cloth  are  made.  Hemp  bind- 
ing twine  is  becoming  a  regular  article  of  trade.  It 
has  been  chiefly  raised  in  the  blue  grass  regions  of 
Kentucky,  but  it  is  now  being  raised  in  several  north- 
ern states  in  connection  with  cordage  and  other  fac- 
tories, notably  in  New  York  and  Illinois. 

It  thrives  best  in  a  temperate  climate  and  on  any 
soil  adapted  to  Indian  corn.  Where  the  waste  pro- 
ducts are  returned  to  the  land  it  is  not  considered  an 
exhaustive  crop.  In  some  places  it  is  raised  contin- 
uously for  many  years  on  the  sanie  land. 

Hemp  is  a  rough  erect  annual,  eight  to  ten  feet  high, 
with  male  and  female  flowers  on  separate  plants.  The 
fibre  is  from  the  inner  bark.  The  yield  of  fibre  may 
be  from  500  to  1,500  pounds,  and  of  seed  per  acre  ten 
to  thirty  bushels. 

It  is  usually  sown  broadcast  at  the  rate  of  four  to  six 
pecks  per  acre  between  oat  sowing  and  corn  planting. 
It  fully  subdues  all  weeds. 

The  harvesting  depends  somewl^^t  on  the  ranknesa 


j 


FIBRE  CROPS.  279 

of  the  growth.  It  is  cut  with  a  mower  or  self -rake 
reaper  when  not  too  large,  or  it  is  cut  by  hand,  as  in 
the  case  of  Indian  corn.  It  is  allowed  to  lie  on  the 
ground  until  retted  or  rotted  by  dews  and  rains,  when 
it  is  shocked  as  Indian  corn  or  tied  in  bundles  and 
stacked. 

In  some  cases  the  hemp  is  broken  in  the  field,  thus 
leaving  the  waste  products  on  the  soil;  in  other  cases 
it  is  carried  to  a  central  place  where  more  rapid  ma- 
chinery is  used. 

BAMIE. 

Ramie  {Boehmeria  nivea)  is  a  perennial  shrub 
with  herbaceous  shoots  belonging  to  the  same  family 
as  hemp,  which  it  somewhat  resembles  in  general 
growth  and  appearance. 

It  has  been  grown  in  Eastern  Asia  from  very  remote 
times  in  a  limited  way.  The  fibre  is  there  extracted 
by  hand  by  a  slow  and  tedious  process,  and  is  used  for 
cordage  and  other  coarse  manufactures  as  well  as  for 
making  textiles  of  great  beauty.  It  is  capable  of  a 
great  variety  of  uses. 

It  is  an  inter  tropical  plant,  and  grows  readily  in  the 
Gulf  states  in  any  soil  which  has  a  good  supply  of 
moisture,  coupled  with  thorough  drainage.  It  is 
claimed  that  three  crops  per  season  may  be  obtained. 

The  plant  is  propagated  by  seeds,  cuttings  or  divi- 
sion of  roots.  If  by  seeds,  the  plants  must  be  started 
in  hot- beds.  Cuttings  of  the  ripened  wood,  including 
three  buds,  are  set  like  willow  cuttings,  with  the  mid- 
dle bud  at  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  propaga- 
tion by  the  division  of  roots  of  the  fully  matured 
plants  is  recommended  for  this  country.  The  plants 
should  be  placed  about  as  thickly  as  hills  of  Indian  corn. 


280        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

It  is  not,  however,  an  established  industry  in  this 
country,  and  cannot  become  one  until  some  machine 
is  brought  into  use  which  will  economically  extract 
the  fibre  from  its  tough,  gummy  stalk. 

JUTE. 

Jute  has  been  cultivated  in  somewhat  recent  times 
in  Southern  Asia  and  tropical  Africa.  The  most  of  the 
jute  of  commerce  comes  from  Bengal. 

There  are  two  species.  Chorchorus  capsular  is  is 
nine  to  ten  feet  high,  and  has  short,  globular  pods, 
while  Chorchorus  olitorius  is  smaller  and  has  elongated 
cylindrical  pods.  The  fibre  of  both  is  practically  the 
same.  The  leaves  of  the  small  species  is  largely  used 
as  a  vegetable. 

Jute  likes  a  moist,  warm  climate,  and  a  rather  sandy 
soil.  It  may  be  grown  in  the  cotton  belt.  It  is  raised 
from  seed,  which  may  be  sown  about  the  same  time  as 
cotton.  It  may  be  drilled  like  wheat,  using  fifteen  to 
twenty  pounds  of  seed  per  acre. 

Like  ramie,  it  will  not  become  an  established  indus- 
try in  this  country  until  the  fibre  can  be  economically 
extracted  from  the  stalk. 

SISAL. 

Several  species  of  the  genus  agave,  to  which  the 
century  plant  belongs,  have  been  cultivated  by  the  na- 
tives of  Central  America  for  thousands  of  years,  the 
most  highly  prized  being  Agave  rigida  var.  Sisalana. 
Yucatan  is  the  principal  source  of  our  commercial 
supply  of  sisal  fibre.  The  fibre  is  obtained  from  the 
large  thick  leaves  by  crushing  with  crude  machinery. 

The  sisal  or  century  plant  grows  on  barren  rocky 
land  which  is  useless  for  other  agricultural  purposes. 


FIBRE  CROPS.  281 

Attempts  were  made  to  introduce  its  culture  into  Flo- 
rida over  fifty  years  ago.  The  escaped  plants  are 
now  growing  wild  in  lower  Florida.  Further  attempts 
are  being  made  to  establish  the  sisal  industry  in 
that  state.  Reports  indicate  that  the  climate  and 
soil  are  suitable  to  its  growth.  The  question  of  its 
economical  production  is  unsettled. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

MISCELLANEOUS  CROPS. 
BUCKWHEAT. 

Buckwheat  is  a  native  of  Northeastern  Asia.  Its 
cultivation  is  of  comparatively  recent  origin.  Al- 
though not  belonging  to  the  grass  family,  but  to  that 
of  the  smart- weeds  and  the  docks,  it  is  generally 
classified  as  a  cereal. 

It  is  the  least  important  of  the  six  important  ce- 
reals grown  in  the  United  States.  It  has  less  than 
half  the  acreage  of  barley  and  rye.  Its  gross  value 
per  acre  has  been  equal  to  that  of  oats.  New  York 
and  Pennsylvania  raise  about  two- thirds  of  the  crop. 
In  proportion  to  population  it  is  much  less  important 
than  fifty  years  ago.  Formerly  it  was  used  as  a 
cheaper  substitute  for  wheat,  now  it  is  used  as  a  lux- 
ury. 

The  flour  of  buckwheat  contains  considerably  less 
albuminoids,  about  the  same  per  cent  of  oil  and 
rather  more  starch  than  wheat  flour;  hence  it  contains 
less  muscle -forming  and  more- fat  forming  nutrients 
than  wheat  flour.  Brewer  suggests  that  inasmuch  as 
plants  of  the  Ijuckwheat  family  are  used  for  their 
medicinal  properties,  perhaps  the  cultivated  species 
has  some  such  property  which  affects  its  physiological 
value  as  a  food.  A  constant  use  of  buckwheat  is 
supposed  to  produce  a  feverish  condition  of  the  sys- 
tem which  manifests  itself  in  eruptions  of  the  skin. 

Buckwheat  is  often  fed  to  fowls  to  stimulate  their 

282 


MISCELLANEOUS  CROPS. 


283 


egg- laying   propensities.     It  is  an  important  honey- 
plant.     The  straw  is  practically  valueless. 

Buckwheat  is  produced  in  the  moister,  cooler  and 
more  elevated  portions  of  the  United  States.  The 
center  of  production  lies  further  north  than  any  of 
our  other  cereals.  It  is  easily  affected  by  drought  and 
when  sown  late  is  apt  to  be  caught  by  a  frost. 

It  will  grow  on  comparatively  poor  land.     Appar- 
ently soil  has  less  effect  on 
yield  than  does  the  climate, 
although  a  light,  well  drained 
soil  is  best.     In- 
asinuch  as    it   is 
sown  in  June  or 
July  it  is   often 
sown  as  a  catch 
crop  when  some 
earlier  crop  fails. 
From  two  to  five 
pecks    are    sown 
broadcast      per 
acre. 

Japanese  Buckwheat.  There  are  three 

cultivated  species  recognized,  but  the  principal  one 
and  the  one  cultivated  in  this  country  is  Fagopyrum 
esculentum.     The  varieties  are  not  numerous. 

After  the  plant  begins  to  flower,  which  is  when  it  is 
rather  small,  flowering  continues,  if  allowed,  until 
stopped  by  frost.  The  crop  is  usually  harvested  when 
the  first  flowers  ripen  seed. 

It  is  not  an  especially  easy  crop  to  handle.  Where 
the  land  will  permit,  a  self  rake  reaper  is  probably 
the  most  desirable  implement,  otherwise  a  cradle  may 


284        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FA.RM. 

be  used.  It  may  be  set  up  in  shocks  something  after 
the  manner  of  corn- fodder  and  thrashed  as  soon  as 
dry. 

TOBACCO. 

Tobacco  (Nicotiana  Tabacum)  is  an  American 
plant,  native  of  Ecuador  and  neighboring  countries. 
Its  cultivation  is  very  ancient.  The  use  of  tobacco 
for  smoking,  chewing  and  snuff- taking  was  diffused 
over  the  greater  part  of  the  American  continent  at 
the  time  of  its  discovery. 

The  crop  of  the  United  States  has  a  greater  com- 
mercial value  than  that  of  rye  or  barley,  although  the 
acreage  is  but  one-fourth  to  one-third  as  great.  The 
average  annual  production  during  the  past  decade  has 
been  about  one -sixth  that  of  cotton.  The  average 
yield  per  acre  has  been  about  725  pounds,  worth 
eight  and  one-half  cents  per  pound.  This  makes  by 
far  the  largest  value  per  acre  (161.50)  of  any  of  our 
important  crops,  potatoes  standing  next. 

Kentucky  raises  about  one-half  this  crop.  The 
states  bordering  on  Kentucky  raise  about  two-thirds 
of  the  rest.  Tobacco  of  high  quality  is  raised  in 
Connecticut  and  Massachusetts. 

Judging  by  the  distribution,  the  climate  affects  the 
tobacco  much  less  than  does  the  soil.  Tobacco  needs  a 
fertile  soil,  a  rather  sandy  loam  being  best.  It  is  con- 
sidered a  particularly  exhaustive  crop.  In  some  lo- 
calities all  the  manure  of  the  farm  goes  to  the  tobacco 
"patch,"  much  to  the  injury  of  the  rest  of  the  farm, 
the  same  land  remaining  in  tobacco  for  many  years. 
Tobacco  followed  by  wheat,  with  which  clover  is  sown, 
and  this  allowed  to  remain  a  couple  of  years  is  gener- 
ally conceded  to  be  a   good  rotation.     In  Kentucky 


MISCELLANEOUS  CROPS.  285 

exhausted  tobacco  lands  are  sometimes  seeded  to  blue 
grass,  and  allowed  to  remain  several  years. 

Nitrogen  and  potash  fertilizers  have  a  marked  effect 
upon  the  yield  and  quality  of  the  tobacco  in  some  lo- 
calities. 

Tobacco  is  an  acrid  narcotic,  annual  herb,  with  large, 
clammy,  entire  leaves,  belonging  to  the  same  family  as 
the  potato,  tomato,  egg  plant,  ground  cherry,  henbane, 
and  Jamestown  weed. 

The  quality,  and  consequently  the  price  of  tobacco, 
varies  greatly  with  the  soil  and  climate,  and  still  more 
greatly  with  the  method  of  handling  and  curing.  Any 
variety  is  soon  modified  when  grown  under  new  con- 
ditions. There  are,  therefore,  many  varieties  and  sub - 
varieties.  Tobacco  is  also  classified  according  to  the 
way  it  is  cured,  the  use  to  which  it  is  put,  and  the 
market  which  it  supplies.  Most  varieties  produce 
several  grades.  The  classification  of  tobacco  is,  there- 
fore, intricate.  The  Havana  or  seed  leaf,  and  the 
burley,  each  with  the  many  different  prefixes,  are  pro- 
bably the  principal  variety  types. 

The  culture  of  tobacco  is  similar  to  that  of  cabbage. 
The  small  seeds  are  sown  in  hot  or  sheltered  beds  in 
March.  Care  is  required  to  have  the  bed  as  free  of 
weed  seeds  as  may  be,  because  the  plants  are  easily 
injured  if  disturbed  by  weeding. 

The  plants  are  transplanted  when  about  the  size  of 
cabbage,  into  hills  about  three  by  four  feet,  varying 
with  variety,  soil  and  method  of  cultivation.  The 
plants  require  not  only  intensive  soil  culture,  but  also 
careful  culture.  Any  disturbance  of  the  plant  is  harm- 
ful. On  this  account  some  recommend  exclusive  hand 
culture,  and  thicker  planting. 


286         THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

The  great  expense  of  tobacco  is  in  the  care 
of  the  plant.  It  is  attacked  by  the  large  tobacco 
worm,  which  must  be  constantly  searched  for  during  the 
season.  When  the  plant  begins  to  blossom,  it  must  be 
topped,  taking  off  the  flowers  and  such  leaves  as  ex- 
perience shows  will  not  ripen  in  a  given  locality.  Ten 
to  sixteen  may  ripen.  After  topping,,  suckers  appear 
in  the  axil  of  the  leaves  and  must  be  removed.  Some 
remove  the  lower  leaves  while  growing,  as  they  are  of 
inferior  quality. 

In  about  two  weeks  after  blossoms  appear,  the  leaves 
begin  to  turn  yellow  and  get  brittle.  It  is  then  ready 
to  harvest.  The  whole  plant  is  severed  at  the  ground, 
and  hungup  (top  downward)  by  various  devices  in 
an  airy  shed  to  dry.  In  some  instances  it  is  kiln-dried. 
The  sheds  are  kept  open  in  dry,  and  closed  in  moist, 
weather. 

During  the  warm  moist  weather  in  the  winter,  the 
tobacco  is  stripped,  sorted,  and  packed  for  market. 
Every  operation  in  connection  with  the  culture,  curing 
and  handling  of  the  crop  requires  technical  knowledge 
and  good  judgment. 

BROOM  CORN. 

Broom  corn  is  an  American  inno.vation,  which  is 
probably  about  old  enough  to  celebrate  its  first  cen- 
tennial. It  is  a  more  or  less  8accharine_variety  of  sor- 
ghum, which  is  cultivated  for  its  seed  panicles.  With 
these  the  well-known  American  brooms  are  made.  The 
varieties  used  for  broom  are  not  materially  different  in 
appearance  from  the  more  distinctively  saccharine 
varieties. 

The  entire  crop  of  the  United  States  in  1886  was 
about  20,000  tons,  nine-tenths  of  which  was  raised  in 


MISCELLANEOUS  CKOPS.  287 

Illinois,  Kansas  and  Nebraska.  A  ton  of  brush  from 
four  acres  is  a  fair  return;  twice  this  quantity  may  be 
obtained. 

The  area  of  possible  production  is  as  wide  as  that 
of  sorghum  for  molasses,  but  as  the  demand  is  limited 
it  should  not  be  attempted  on  any  extended  scale,  ex- 
cept on  rich  corn  land,  and  probably  not  much  north 
of  the  fortieth  parallel.  Inasmuch  as  broom  corn  is 
harvested  soon  after  the  flowers  have  set,  the  crop  is 
not  an  exhaustive  one.  It  has  been  raised  fifteen  to 
twenty-five  years  continuously  on  the  same  land  with- 
out apparent  diminution  of  fertility.  Insect  enemies 
and  fungus  diseases,  however,  increase. 

The  seed  is  too  immature  to  be  an  important  item 
of  the  industry,  although  it  has  some  food  value.  The 
stalks  furnish  abundant  fodder  of  fair  quality.  They 
are,  probably,  more  frequently  plowed  under  than 
burned. 

The  planting  and  culture  of  broom  corn  is  similar  to 
that  of  sorghum.  Thickness  of  planting  modifies  the 
quality  of  the  broom.  The  thicker  the  planting  the 
finer  the  brush.  The  proper  thickness  will  depend 
upon  the  character  of  the  soil,  the  variety  and  the  qual- 
ity of  the  brush  desired.  This  can  best  be  learned  for 
a  given  locality  by  experience.  In  general  there  may 
be  three  to  five  stalks  every  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches, 
in  rows  three  and  one-half  to  four  feet  apart. 

Brush  of  a  light  color  is  desired  and  is  obtained 
by  cutting  as  soon  as  may  be  after  the  flowers  have 
set.  The  early  cut  brush  is  also  said  to  be  heavier 
and  more  durable.  The  milk  stage  is  as  late  as  it 
may  safely  be  allowed  to  stand. 

When  the  broom  is  ready  to   harvest  two  rows  are 


288         THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

bent  across  each  other  at  about  right  angles,  so  that 
the  top  part  of  the  stalk  is  horizontal  at  about  the 
height  of  a  common  table.  The  brush  or  seed  pan- 
icle is  then  removed  with  about  eight  inches  of  the 
stalk.  The  brush  is  collected  from  the  table  where  it 
is  laid  by  the  cutters  and  taken  to  the  stripper,  which 
removes  the  seed.  The  clean  brush  is  then  placed  to 
dry  in  airy  sheds  arranged  for  the  purpose.  At 
some  stage  of  the  process,  as  found  most  convenient, 
the  brush  is  sorted.  When  dry  it  is  baled  and  is 
ready  for  market. 

The  price  is  very  unstable.  Variations  of  from  sixty 
dollars  to  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  dollars  per  ton 
have  not  been  unusual  in  recent  years  and  formerly 
they  were  much  greater.  The  production  of  broom- 
corn  is  best  engaged  in  only  by  those  who  make  it 
a  specialty  after  having  studied  the  business  carefully 
in  all  its  details. 

HOP. 

The  hop  (Humulus  luputus)  came  into  general  cul- 
tivation in  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages.  The  produc- 
tion is  in  general  about  equal  in  weight  to  that  of 
broom- corn,  on  a  somewhat  less  acreage.  Perhaps  a 
thousand  pounds  is  a  fair  yield  and  two  thousand  a 
large  yield  per  acre.  The  variation  in  price  is  very 
marked.  Some  years  it  is  a  very  profitable  crop,  in 
others  it  does  not  pay  the  cost  of  production.  The 
quality  of  the  hop  deteriorates  rapidly  upon  keeping. 

The  plant  is  perennial  and  hence  a  yard  once  set 
may  last  many  years.  There  are  male  and  female 
flowers,  borne  on  separate  plants.  The  female  flowers 
are  borne  at  the  base  of  scales  which  are  arranged 
in   clusters.     It    is   these   ripened  clusters   that  are 


I 


MISCELLANEOUS  CROPS. 


289 


known  in  commerce  as  hops.  The  male  plants  are 
planted  among  the  female  plants,  say  one  male  to  100 
females,  so  that  the  female  flowers  will  ripen  seeds. 
Hops  are  planted  on  any  good  corn  land.  Shel- 
tered places  with  good  exposure  to  sun  are  preferred. 


Branch  of  Statvitnate  Hop-Vine. 
Reduced  in  size,  and  showing  at  the  lower  left-hand  side  a  single 
flower  of  the  natural  size. 

Sets  or  roots  may  be  obtained  from  an  old  plantation. 
Usually  four,  each  with  two  or  three  buds,  are  placed 
in  a  hill.  The  hills  may  be  seven  to  ten  feet  apart 
each  way. 


290        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

The  first  year  the  land  is  usually  planted  with  any 
cultivated  crop  and  the  few  hops  not  picked.  The 
second  year  two  poles  15  to  20  feet  high  are  usually 
placed  in  each  hill,  about  15  inches  apart.  Two  vines 
are  trained  to   each    pole   and   rests   are   usually  re- 


Bbanch  of  a  Pistillate  Hop-Vine. 
{Shown  in  reduced  size.) 

moved.  In  some  cases  a  modified  trellis  is  used. 
The  land  is  kept  cultivated  to  remove  weeds.  Each 
year  the  hills  are  opened  and  the  plants  pruned, 
leaving  enough  buds  for  the  vines. 

Hops   ripen  in   August   and   September   and   are 
picked  when  the  seeds  get  hard.     The  vines   are  usu- 


MISCELLANEOUS  CKOPS.  291 

ally  cut  near  the  base  and  the  poles  laid  on  a  sup- 
port at  a  convenient  height  for  picking.  The  hops 
are  picked  in  large  boxes  and  can'ied  to  kilns  in  sacks, 
where  they  are  emptied  in  a  large  carpeted  room  or 
oven  heated  to  about  180  degrees  Fahrenheit,  in 
which  the  hops  dry  in  about  8  to  10  hours.  When 
cool  they  are  baled  and  marketed  as  soon  as  may  be. 

FIELD  PEAS. 

Field  peas  {Pisum  arvene)  are  a  somewhat  im- 
portant field  crop  both  in  Canada  and  in  Europe,  but 
have  never  become  so  in  this  country.  In  Canada  35 
to  40  bushels  per  acre  are  reported  in  individual  in- 
stances. 

The  plant  belongs  to  the  clover  family,  and  hence 
has  a  similar  renovating  value  for  the  land.  The 
seeds,  which  are  fed  ground,  have  about  twice  as  large 
a  percentage  of  albuminoids  as  does  Indian  corn,  and 
are  therefore  a  desirable  supplementary  food  for  milch 
cows  and  growing  stock.  The  manure  from  stock  fed 
with  peas  would  be  more  valuable  than  that  of  stock 
fed  with  cereal  grains.  The  straw  or  haulms  is  of 
little  value. 

Sandy  loams  are  better  than  clay  loafns.  On  rich 
soils  the  plants  are  apt  to  lodge.  Peas  should  be  sown 
at  the  rate  of  three  bushels  per  acre,  as  early  in  the 
spring  as  the  soil  will  permit.  Use  an  ordinary  wheat 
drill,  one  which  will  not  break  the  seeds  in  planting. 

Black-eyed,  marrowfat,  golden  vine  and  multiplier 
are  good  varieties. 

In  Canada  they  are  sometimes  cut  with  a  pea  har- 
vester attachment  to  an  ordinary  reaper.  A  common 
practice  there,  also,  is  to  use  a  sulky  rake,  one  end 
only  being  used,  in  order  that  the  horse    may  not  be 


292        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

compelled  to  walk  upon  the  peas.  Harvest  when  about 
two  thirds  the  pods  are  yellow,  and  when  dry  stack  un- 
der cover,  or  thresh  immediately.  They  may  be 
threshed  with  the  ordinary  thresher,  although  it  chops 
the  straw  up  rather  fine. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

WEEDS. 

Soil  culture  is  an  active  warfare  against  weeds.  This 
warfare  occupies  a  great  portion  of  the  time  of  every 
tiller  of  the  soil.  A  million  of  weeds  may  grow  on  an 
acre  of  land  during  a  single  season. 

Definition. — In  ordinary  usage  any  homely  plant 
is  called  a  weed.  The  ox-eye  daisy  is  universally  con- 
ceded to  be  a  comely  flower;  the  tomato  a  homely 
plant.  Emerson  once  said  in  his  quaint  way  that  a 
weed  was  a  plant,  the  virtue  of  which  had  not  yet  been 
discovered.  The  roots  of  burdocks  have  medicinal 
properties.  Parsnips,  mustard  and  hemp  are  examples 
of  cultivated  plants  which  are  pernicious  weeds  under 
some  circumstances. 

Perhaps  the  statement  that  a  weed  is  a  plant  out  of 
place  is  the  most  satisfactory  definition  of  the  term  as 
we  ordinarily  use  it.  The  plant  is  not  out  of  place  in 
nature,  but  out  of  place  so  far  as  man  is  concerned;  in 
the  way,  as  it  were. 

How  Injurious^. — Weeds  are  injurious  in  several 
ways. 

1.  They  consume  plant  food.  Every  piece  of  land 
has  a  limited  quantity  of  available  plant  food.  If  part  is 
consumed  by  the  growth  of  weeds,  the  amount  of  food 
is  thereby  restricted  for  the  cultivated  crop. 

It  has  been  found  that  a  ton  of  air  dry  pig- weed, 
Amaranttis  retrofexus^  would  contain  as  much  phos- 
phoric acid,  twice  as  much  nitrogen,  and  nearly  five 
times  as  much  potash  as  a  ton  of  ordinary  manure.    A 

293 


2^4        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

ton  of  pig- weed  contains  as  much  phosphoric  acid  as 
fifteen  bushels  of  wheat,  as  much  nitrogen  as  twenty 
bushels,  and  as  much  potash  as  seventy-five  bushels. 

2.  Weeds  shade  the  ground.  Plants  require  a 
certain  degree  of  warmth  of  the  soil  to  grow  satisfac- 
torily. By  shading  the  ground,  weeds  may  prevent  it 
from  obtaining  the  necessary  warmth. 

3.  Weeds  occupy  space.  Plants  require  a  certain 
amount  of  room,  both  for  roots  and  tops.  If  occupied 
by  weeds  it  cannot  be  occupied  by  useful  plants.  The 
Canada  thistle  is  probably  more  harmful  in  occupying 
space  than  in  any  other  way. 

4.  Weeds  take  water  from  the  soil.  All  growing 
plants  transpire  large  quantities  of  water.  The  quan- 
tity will  vary  with  the  humidity  of  the  air.  Lawes 
found  in  England  that  150  to  270  pounds  of  water 
were  transpired  for  each  pound  of  increase  of  dry  sub- 
stance in  different  cultivated  crops,  Hellriegel  found 
in  Germany  that  about  300  pounds  of  water  was  tran- 
spired for  each  pound  of  increase  of  dry  matter. 
Plants  cannot  reach  their  full  development  without  an 
abundance  of  water  throughout  their  entire  growth. 
Weeds  rob  the  soil  of  its  water,  and  thereby  restrict 
their  growth.  An  area  covered  by  vegetation  evapor- 
ates much  more  water  than  bare  soil,  or  even  a  similar 
area  of  water. 

Sturtevant  says  that  the  vineyardists  on  the  uplands 
of  New  Jersey  find  weeds  injurious;  those  on  the  low- 
lands do  not.  On  the  wetter  land  the  transpiration 
by  the  weeds  cause  that  dryness  of  soil  that  is  bene- 
ficial to  the  grape. 

5.  Weeds  are  troublesome  and  injurious  to  stock. 
The  cockle  burr  is  more  troublesome  to  stock  than  it  is 


WEEDS.  295 

injurious  to  cultivated  plants.  Wild  barley  (Hordeum 
murinum)  causes  much  loss  to  stock  owners  in  the 
west  by  its  pestiferous  awned  seeds. 

Weeds  restrict  the  circulation  of  the  air  as  well  as 
taking  plant  food  from  it.  The  amount  of  carbonic 
acid  which  comes  in  contact  with  the  cultivated  crops 
in  a  given  time  is  thereby  restricted.  Too  little, 
however,  is  known  of  air  chemistry  and  physics  as 
related  to  plant  gi'owth  to  make  it  possible  to  hazard 
an  opinion  upon  the  effect  of  this  on  the  growth  of 
the  crop. 

The  amount  of  fertility  which  a  crop  of  weeds 
takes  from  the  soil  may  be  supplied  to  the  land  and 
still  the  weeds  will  be  injurious.  Some  crops  are  not 
injured  by  shading  the  ground,  such  as  potatoes, 
which  are  raised  in  some  localities  by  mulching  with 
straw.  It  would  seem  that  the  space  which  the  weeds 
occupy  in  a  corn-field  would  not  be  injurious  to  corn, 
yet  weeds  must  be  removed  in  order  to  get  a  full  crop. 
Until  there,  is  further  evidence  it  must  be  concluded, 
therefore,  that  the  most  important  injury  that  weeds 
do  is  in  exhausting  the  water   from  the  soil. 

Kinds  which  are  Injurious. — No  one  can  tell 
with  absolute  certainty  whether  a  weed  will  become 
troublesome  in  a  given  locality.  Not  more  than  one 
in  twenty  of  our  bad  weeds  is  a  native  plant.  Most 
of  the  foreign  plants  which  have  become  troublesome 
here  are  of  little  importance  in  their  native  places. 
Plants  indigenous  to  this  country  and  not  usually 
troublesome  here  have  become  great  pests  when  intro- 
duced elsewhere.  Evening  primrose  and  watercress 
are  examoles. 

The  pernicious  character  of  weeds  varies  in  different 


296        THE  SOILS  AND  CROPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

sections  of  our  own  country.  It  is  afiPected  by  both 
soil  and  climate.  The  Canada  thistle  and  the  ox-eyed- 
daisy  are  not  especially  troublesome  in  Ohio,  Indiana 
and  Illinois  (because  they  usually  do  not  produce 
seed)  but  to  keep  an  eastern  farm  free  of  them  re- 
quires eternal  vigilance. 

Prolificacy. — The  difficulty  of  eradicating  weeds 
is  due  to  at  least  four  causes;  viz.:  their  prolificacy, 
the  vitality  of  the  seed,  their  means  of  dissemination 
and  the  adaptability  of  the  plant. 

The  ordinary  burdock  burr  will  contain  fifty  seeds. 
Each  seed  may  grow  into  a  plant,  producing  thirty- 
five  to  forty  thousand  seeds.  A  common  thistle-head 
may  contain  three  hundred  seeds.  Each  seed  may 
produce  a  plant  with  fifty  thousand  seeds.  The  com- 
mon tumble-weed  (AmarantiLS  albus)  growing  in  some 
fence  corner  of  a  twenty  acre  field  may  have  seed 
enough  to  supply  one  seed  to  every  square  foot  of 
land  in  the  field. 

Below  are  given  a  few  common  weeds,  with  the 
number  of  seeds  produced  on  a  single  plant  of  not 
unusual  size. 

Number  of  seeds  on 
a  plant. 

Native— Annual- 
Ragweed 4,000 

Foreign — Annual — 

Purslane 400,000  to  2,000,000 

Jamestown  weed 100,000 

Pigweeds 150,000  to  800,000 

Fox-tails 15,000  to  45,000 

Velvet  leaf 8,000 

Chess 4,000 

Cockle 3,000 

JFoRBiGN— Biennial- 
Common  thistle 10,000  to  65,000 

Burdock , , 3B,000  to  50,000 


WEEDS.  297 

Number  of  seeds  on 
a  plant. 
Foreign — Perennial — 

Canada  thistle 0  to  10,000 

Ox-eye  daisy 800  to  95,000 

Sour  dock 36,000  to  90,000 

Vitality, — Under  the  proper  conditions  seeds  may 
maintain  their  vitality  for  years.  Jamestown  weeds 
have  been  known  to  grow  in  a  piece  of  land  for  ten 
years  from  a  single  seeding.  A  single  plant  contain- 
ing 100,000  seeds  may,  therefore,  be  the  source  of 
considerable  annoyance,  not  to  say  expense. 

Beal  buried  twenty  common  varieties  of  weeds 
seeds  twenty  inches  deep  in  pint  bottles  of  sand. 
At  the  end  of  live  years  eight  varieties  failed  to  grow. 
Of  the  twelve  remaining  varieties  thirty-one  oat  of 
fifty  grew.  Of  purslane  nineteen,  of  pig- weed 
twenty -one,  fox-tail  thirty- four  and  of  sour  dock  forty- 
five  out  of  fifty  seeds  grew  at  the  end  of  five  years. 

When,  however,  seeds  are  exposed  to  the  usual  con- 
ditions of  heat,  moisture  and  aii-,  many  either  grow  or 
rot.  Our  worst  annuals  are  those  which  are  prolific 
and  have  the  power  of  resisting  these  influences  for  a 
long  time. 

The  reserve  force  of  seeds  is  illustrated  by  the 
cockle-burr.  Each  burr  has  two  seeds.  Ordinarily 
only  one  of  these  grow.  But  if  the  plant  is  destroyed 
the  second  seed  grows.  _  ._ ' 

Dissemin^nita.— ^lost  of  our  worst  weeds  being 
of  foreign  origm  it  follows  that  their  presence  de- 
pends on  some  means  of  dissemination.  These  are 
many  and  often  curious  and  may  be  divided  into  two 
general  classes:  natural  and  artificial. 

Distribution  by  wind  is  one  of  the  most  familiar 
natural  means.     Many  seeds  of  the  sun -flower  family, 


298        THE  SOILS  AND  CEOPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

Buch  as  the  thistle,  float  in  the  air  by  means  of  their 
pappus.  The  tumble-weed  is  a  familiar  example  of  a 
whole  plant  being  moved  by  the  wind.  Seeds  drift 
with  the  snow. 

Water  is  a  common  source  of  distribution.  Far- 
mers whose  lands  are  over- flowed  by  spring  freshets 
find  it  impossible  to  keep  their  land  free  of  weeds 
grown  by  their  neighbors  farther  up  the  stream.  Co- 
operative effort  is  here  necessary.  In  1882  the  high 
waters  brought  the  horse-weed  [Erigeron  canadense) 
to  farms  in  the  southern  part  of  Ohio,  where  it  was 
unknown  before. 

There  are  many  devices  of  the  fruit  of  plants  by 
which  they  stick  to  animals  and  are  thus  carried  from 
place  to  place.  Cockle- burrs,  burdock  burrs  andspan- 
ish-needles  are  familiar  examples. 

Seeds  are  canied  in  the  mud,  clinging  to  the  feet  of 
birds  and  other  animals.  Many  seeds  are  distributed 
by  being  swallowed  but  not  digested.  Birds  may 
carry  seeds  long  distances  in  this  way.  Doubtless 
farm  animals  which  are  transported  from  place  to 
place  may  do  the  same.  It  may  pay  the  careful  far- 
mer to  look  to  this  matter. 

Some  plants  have  the  power  within  themselves  by 
which  seeds  are  disseminated  to  a  slight  extent.  The 
seed- pods  of  the  wood  sorrel  (  Oxalis  stricta)  explode, 
scattering  the  seeds.  Plantain  in  moist  weather  ex- 
udes a  gelatinous  substance  which  carries  the  seeds 
to  the  ground  and  causes  them  to  stick  to  passing  ob- 
jects. 

The  seeds  of  the  bunch  grass  (Stipa)  have  a  sharp 
point,  and  a  long  spiral  awn  which  twists  and  un- 
twists with  the  moisture  of  the  air,   thus   causing  the 


WEEDS.  299 

seeds  to  bury  themselves  in  the  soil.  They  often 
cause  flock-owners  much  trouble  by  burying  them- 
selves in  the  flesh  of  their  sheep. 

By  artificial  means  of  dissemination  are  meant  those 
in  which  man  is  concerned. 

Weeds  have  been  introduced  by  being  grown  for 
ornamental  purposes,  such  as  butter  and  eggs  {Linaria 
vulgaris)^  and  velvet  leaf  (Abutilen  avicennae).  Others 
have  escaped  from  cultivation,  such  as  parsnip  and 
mustard.  From  being  plants  in  place  they  have  be- 
come plants  out  of  place. 

Common  carriers  are  a  soui'ce  of  weed  distribution. 
Weeds  and  other  seeds  have  followed  the  pioneer  step 
by  step  along  the  lines  of  common  travel.  The  pro- 
gress of  many  plants  have  been  traced  along  these 
thoroughfares.  Useful  plants  have  also  been  distrib- 
uted. Thus  Kentucky  blue  grass  is  known  to  have 
been  introduced  into  one  locality  of  Northern  Illinois 
by  the  night  camping  of  the  pioneer.  When  first  in- 
troduced it  was  thought  to  be  a  harmful  weed  which 
would  ruin  the  country. 

Weed  seeds  are  brought  from  the  Eastern  hemis- 
phere by  the  ballast  which  ships  bring  in  their  west- 
ern trips.  The  packing  of  marble  shipped  from  Ver- 
mont has  been  known  to  bring  Canada  thistle  seeds  to 
Illinois.  In  honoring  the  dead  the  trials  of  the  living 
have  been  increased.  The  army  weed  {Amarantiis 
spinosos)  is  so  called  in  Ohio  because  it  was  intro- 
duced into  that  state  during  the  civil  war. 

Impure  seed  is  a  common  source  of  weed  distribu- 
tion, and  one  that  may  in  a  great  measure  be  avoided. 
Clover  and  grass  seeds  are.  a  frequent  source  of  trouble. 
Canada  thistle,  ox-eye  daisy,  and  bearded  plantain  are 


SOO        THE  SOILS  AND  CBOPS  OF  THE  FARM. 

apt  to  be  introduced  in  this  way.  Every  farmer  should 
avoid  as  much  as  possible  getting  grass  and  clover  or 
even  other  seeds  from  a  distance,  or  from  unknovirn 
sources.  Your  neighbors'  seeds  may  contain  weed 
seeds,  but  they  are  not  so  apt  to  contain  those  that  are 
not  already  on  your  farm. 

The  importance  of  a  few  seeds  is  not  realized  unless 
their  prolificacy  is  fully  understood.  The  number  is 
usually  under-estimated.  Lazenby  found  in  a  sample 
of  seed  wheat,  nine  thousand  seeds  of  chess  per 
bushel.  If  a  bushel  of  wheat  contains  one  pound  of 
chess,  it  would  contain  as  many  seeds  of  chess  as  of 
wheat. 

Adaptability. — The  adaptability  of  plants  in  their 
struggle  for  existence  often  prevents  their  extermina- 
tion. A  fox-tail  plant  (Setaria)  has  been  known  to 
ripen  seed  at  two  inches  in  height  (one  to  two  feet  is 
a  common  height)  by  being  surrounded  by  other 
plants. 

A  chess  plant,  standing  alone,  may  easily  produce 
four  thousand  seeds.  When  sown  like  small  grain,  it 
will  hardly  produce  one  hundred  fold.  When  subdued 
by  the  generally  stronger  growing  wheat  probably 
much  less  will  be  produced. 

When  prairie  lands  were  broken  up,  far  away  from 
any  other  cultivated  area,  the  striking  horse  weed 
(Erigeron  canadense)  often  sprang  up  in  profusion. 
This  weed  had  not  been  seen  there  previously.  The 
only  explanation  that  can  be  given  is  that  the  plants 
were  growing  there,  but  were  so  kept  in  check  by  the 
other  vegetation  as  to  be  passed  unnoticed,  just  as 
would  be  the  fox-tail  above  mentioned. 

Many  weeds  seed  when  they  are  very  small.     Pur- 


WEEDS.  301 

slane  begins  to  produce  seed  almost  as  soon  as  it  has 
any  top,  so  that  it  is  often  well  nigh  impossible  to  pre- 
vent seeds  being  formed. 

Eradication. — Weeds  may  be  eradicated,  but 
with  our  present  system  of  farming,  complete  exter- 
mination is  [not  practicable,  certainly  not  essential  to 
successful  agriculture.  Along  the  Mediterranean  coast 
farmers  are  known  to  have  fought  the  same  weeds  for 
three  centuries  without  one  species  having  been  era- 
dicated. 

To  eradicate  certain  kinds  of  weeds,  often  the  most 
pernicious  kinds,  and  to  keep  all  kinds  in  subjection, 
is  both  possible  and  feasible.  The  more  intensive  the 
farming,  the  more  completely  this  may  be  done. 

With  annuals,  the  prevention  of  the  plants  from 
seeding,  the  destruction  of  the  seed  in  the  soil,  and 
the  prevention  of  the  introduction  of  seeds  from  out- 
side sources,  is  all  that  is  necessary.  The  reason  for 
the  difficulties  will  be  understood  from  what  has  gone 
before. 

Clean  culture  is  the  chief  essential  to  success.  It 
kills  the  weeds  which  are  growing  on  the  land,  and 
hastens  the  destruction  of  the  seeds  in  the  land  by 
causing  them  either  to  grow  or  rot.  One  great  diffi- 
culty is  that  all  the  land  is  not,  and  can  not  be  brought, 
into  cultivation.  Waste  places,  hedges  and  fence  rows 
produce  weeds  abundantly.  A  tumble  weed  grows 
along  a  fence  row.  A  crop  of  oats,  perhaps,  is  har- 
vested and  the  land  plowed.  On  a  windy  day,  the 
tumble  weed  loosens  anchor,  and  freighted  with  100,- 
000  seeds,  goes  rolling  across  the  land,  literally  sowing 
destruction  in  its  path.  A  thistle  in  a  hedge,  or  a  bur- 
dock in  the  corner  of  a  cornfield  visited  by  cattle,  are 


302       THE  SOILS  AND  CHOPS  OF  THE  FAEM. 

sources  of  danger.  Hedges,  on  account  of  concealing 
the  growing  weeds,  are  a  constant  menace  to  clean 
culture.  As  far  as  possible  all  waste  places  should 
be  brought  into  cultivation,  and  the  number  of  fences 
should  be  reduced  as  far  as  compatible  with  good 
husbandry. 

Early  plowing  of  stubble  ground  after  harvest  would 
prevent  many  weeds  seeding.  In  place  of  this,  burn- 
ing off  the  stubble  would  destroy  both  weeds  and  seeds. 
While  there  would  be  some  loss  of  organic  matter,  in- 
cluding nitrogen,  this  practice  has  much  to  commend 
it.  It  not  only  destroys  weed  seeds,  but  also  insect 
enemies  and  fungus  diseases.  Weedy  roadsides  are  a 
source  of  much  injury  to  the  clean  cultivator,  as  well  as 
most  unsightly,  and  should  be  kept  mown  by  co-opera- 
tive effort,  when  in  most  cases  useful  grasses  will  soon 
displace  the  pernicious  and  unsightly  weeds. 

Inasmuch  as  we  can  not  hope  to  eradicate  entirely 
our  most  prolific  and  thoroughly  introduced  weeds 
with  our  present  methods  of  farming,  we  should  try 
to  arrange  so  as  to  give  our  crops  the  first  and  best 
chance,  and  the  weeds  the  poorest.  Rolling  oat 
ground  for  example,  in  a  dry  time  may  firm  it  about 
the  weed  seeds  near  the  surface,  enough  to  cause  them 
to  grow  without  having  any  appreciable  effect  on  the 
oats.  If  the  land  had  not  been  rolled,  the  weeds  might 
not  have  grown. 

It  is  often  advisable  to  delay  the  planting  of  a  crop 
until  the  land  is  warm  enough  to  cause  it  to  grow 
rapidly,  so  that  it  will  out-strip  the  weeds  in  their 
race  for  place. 

If  land  infested  with  morning  glories  is  planted 
with  corn,  the  land  should  not  be  cultivated  until  both 


WEEDS.  303 

corn  and  weeds  have  a  good  start.  Before  any  other 
cultivation  is  given  the  morning  glories  should  be  re- 
moved with  a  hoe.  With  ordinary  cultivation  there- 
after the  morning  glories  will  not  cause  further 
trouble  that  season. 

Biennial  plants  require  to  be  watched  for  two  years 
in  order  to  kill  them.  In  practice  it  is  best  to  cut  them 
down  when  they  begin  to  flower,  cutting  well  into  the 
ground.     The  root  then  dies. 

With  perennials  the  plants  must  not  only  be  kept 
from  going  to  seed,  but  the  plants  themselves  must  be 
destroyed. 

No  common  flowering  plant  can  live  without  leaves. 
Constant  cutting  of  the  tops  so  that  no  part  appears 
above  the  ground  will  kill  it.  Some  perennials,  such 
as  morning  glories,  may  be  killed  on  restricted  areas 
by  pasturing  with  sheep. 

Land  may  be  left  fallow  or  put  in  some  hoed  crop, 
and  in  either  case  given  thorough  cultivation.  Heavily 
manuring  the  land  and  growing  some  grain  crop,  fol- 
lowed closely  by  another,  and  perhaps  still  another,  and 
afterward  giving  thorough  cultivation,  will  often  kill 
perennials  completely.  Rye  and  millet  are  good  crops 
to  use.  In  short,  any  method  that  prevents  the  plant 
from  producing  tops  will  kill  it.  With  care  and 
judgment  it  may  be  done  without  great  expense. 

Successful  farming  in  all  its  branches  is  an  exact- 
ing business.  It  requires  constant  and  careful  watch- 
fulness. Weed  destruction  is  not  the  least  exacting  of 
its  many  phases. 


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